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GEOGRAPHY 


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TARR  &-  MCMURRY 


CAUFORNIA  STATE  SERIES 


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SUPPLEMENT 


TO  THE  TEACHER. 

Geography  like  history  is  daily  being  made  and  since  the  state  text- 
books in  geography  have  not  been  brought  up  to  date  for  a  number 
of  years,  the  State  Board  of  Education  feels  that  a  brief  supplement  is 
needed  to  help  the  teachers  in  their  work.  In  view  of  coming  changes 
in  world  geography,  a  thorough  revision  is  not  wise  or  practicable  at 
this  time.  Many  geographical  changes  caused  by  war  and  the  passage 
of  time  will  occur  within  the  next  year  or  two. 

Not  until  conditions  are  more  settled  is  it  likely  that  these  or  any 
other  geography  textbooks  will  be  thoroughly  reorganized.  In  the 
meantime,  this  little  supplement  may  be  of  service  to  the  teaching  force 
of  the  state.  The  matter  contained  therein  is  taken  largely  from 
Tarr  and  McMurry's  New  Geographies. 

The  supplement  will  contain  information  under  the  following  heads; 

1.  The  Discovery  of  the  North  and  the  South  Poles. 

2.  The  Panama  Canal  and  the  Panama  Canal  Zone. 

3.  The  Government  of  Portugal. 

4.  The  Control  of  Korea. 

5.  The  Government  of  China. 

6.  The  Colonies  of  South  Africa. 

7.  The  New  States  of  the  Union. 

8.  Development  in  the  Philippines. 

9.  The  Development  of  the  Oil  Industry  in  the  Western  States. 

10.  The  Development  of  the  Rice  Industry  in  California. 

11.  The  Introduction  of  Portland  Cement. 

12.  Reclamation  in  California. 

13.  Eruption  of  Mt.  Lassen. 

14.  The  Earthquake  of  1906. 

15.  New  Tables  of  Population. 

Teachers  should  direct  the  pupils  to  mark  their  books  at  the  places 
where  the  following  statements  or  corrections  apply.   . 


The  Discovery  of  the  North  and  the  South  Polee. 
P.  124,  Introductory  Geography. 

Many  men  have  tried  to  cross  the  icy  seas  that  surround  the  north 
pole;  but,  until  1909,  no  one  had  been  able  to  get  quite  as  far  as  the 
pole.  In  that  year.  Commodore  Peary,  after  many  trials,  at  last 
reached  the  north  pole. 

On  December  16,  1911,  Roald  Amundsen,  in  command  of  the  Nor- 
wegian expedition  in  search  of  the  south  pole,  made  a  camp  at  the  exact 
pole,  and  placed  there  a  cairn  with  the  Norwegian  flag.  A  month  later 
Captain  Scott,  in  command  of  the  British  expedition,  found  the  cairn 
and  Norwegian  flag.  Months  later  the  bodies  of  Captain  Scott  and  two 
others  of  the  expedition  were  found  where  they  had  perished  in  a 
blizzard.  A  notebook  which  contributes  an  imperishable  page  to 
English  literature  told  of  the  discovery  and  the  hardships  preceding 
and  following  it  that  ended  in  the  death  of  Captain  Scott  and  his 
comrades. 

Panama  Canal  and  Canal  Zone. 

P.  213,  Introductory  Geography. 

PP.  18,  184,  214-218  in  Advanced  Geography. 

Central  America  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  are  of  interest  because 
of  the  Panama  Canal  that  has  been  completed  recently.  In  1904  a 
treaty  was  ratified  between  the  Government  of  the  United  States  and 
that  of  Panama  by  which  the  strip  of  land  ten  miles  wide  and  fifty  miles 
long,  known  as  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  was  created  and  ceded  to  the 
United  States.  Work  was  begun  under  the  new  treaty  in  1906,  and  on 
October  10,  1913,  there  occurred  what  is  called  the  Union  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Waters  by  the  blowing  up  of  the  Gamboa  Dike. 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
commerce  of  the  entire  world.  A  steamer  bound  from  London  to 
San  Francisco  saves  five  thousand  miles  by  taking  the  new  route, 
while  eight  thousand  miles  are  saved  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 
Examine  the  globe  to  see  why  more  miles  are  saved  in  the  latter  case. 
The  canal  benefits  not  only  our  seacoast  towns,  but  also  many  interior 
communities  of  our  country  by  affording  convenient  and  cheap  trans- 
portation for  their  products.  What  effect  wiU  the  canal  have  upon  the 
size  of  the  city  of  Panama  at  one  end  of  the  canal  and  of  Colon  at  the 
other  end  ? 

The  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition  at  San  Francisco  in 
1915  commemorated  the  opening  of  the  canal. 


The  Government  of  Portugal. 

P.  240,  Introductory  Geography. 
P.  365,  Advanced  Geography. 

Both  Spain  and  Portugal  have  been  limited  monarchies,  but  in  1910 
Portugal  became  a  republic.  Attempts  to  reinstate  the  monarchial 
form  of  government  have  persisted,  and  resulted  during  May,  1915,  in 
considerable  disturbance  and  rioting. 


The  Control  of  Korea. 

P.  257,  Introductory  Geography. 
Korea  w;as  an  independent  kingdom  until  a  few  years  ago,  when 
Japan  seized  it  during  her  war  with  Russia.  It  is  a  very  backward 
nation,  and  until  recently,  foreigners  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
country.  The  chief  industry  is  agriculture,  but  there  are  extensive 
forests  and  valuable  mineral  deposits. 


The  Government  of  China. 

P.  255,  Introductory  Geography. 
P.  460,  Advanced  Geography. 

Until  1912,  the  Chinese  government  was  an  absolute  monarchy,  with  a 
governor,  or  viceroy,  for  each  province,  one  of  whose  duties  it  was  to 
collect  money  for  the  government.  The  Emperor  was  not  a  Chinaman, 
but  belonged  to  the  Manchu  division  of  the  yellow  race,  which  invaded 
and  conquered  China  in  1644.  It  was  then  that  the  Manchu  custom 
of  wearing  a  long  queue  was  introduced  into  China.  This  form  of 
government  finally  became  so  unpopular  that  the  Chinese  rose  in 
rebellion  and  established  a  republican  form  of  government.  With  this 
popular  government  great  progress  is  taking  place  in  China. 


The  Colonies  of  South  Africa. 

P.  269,  Introductory  Geography. 
Much  of  South  Africa  was  first  claimed  by  the  Dutch  of  Holland. 
The  English,  however,  long  ago  got  possession  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  by  war  obtained  the  other  Dutch  countries  of  South  Africa.     They 
are  now  united  under  the  name,  The  Union  of  South  Africa. 


The  Oap«  to  Oairo  Route. 

P.  270,  Introductory  Geography. 

The  boldest  plan  of  all  is  to  build  a  railway  from  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Cairo  in  Egypt.  It  is  called  the  **Cape  to  Cairo'*  route. 
Doubtless,  one  will  in  time  be  able  to  travel  by  rail  all  the  way  from 
Cape  Town  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

New  States  of  the  Union. 
P.  163,  Advanced  Geography. 

When  the  "Western  Country  was  first  settled,  it  was  divided  into 
territories,  but  as  the  population  increased,  these  territories  have  one 
by  one  been  admitted  into  the  Union  as  states.  The  last  to  be  admitted 
Avere  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  in  1912. 

There  are  many  fertile  valleys  in  these  two  states,  where  there  is 
irrigation;  and  in  this  warm  climate  wheat,  corn,  vegetables,  alfalfa, 
apples,  peaches,  grapes,  and  many  other  crops  are  raised.  While  some 
of  the  farming  is  carried  on  by  Mexicans  and  Indians,  best  results  are 
gained  by  Americans,  who  own  a  large  part  of  the  irrigated  land.  The 
United  States  government  is  spending  large  sums  of  money  in  building 
storage  reservoirs,  and  in  improving  the  irrigation  systems  in  other 
ways,  so  that  many  settlers  are  finding  valuable  farm  lands  here. 


Development  in  the  Philippines. 

P.  276,  Introductory  Geography. 
P.  188,  Advanced  Geography. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  number  nearly  eight  million, 
about  six-sevenths  of  whom  are  civilized.  Besides  the  Negritos,  the 
various  tribes  of  Malays,  and  the  half-breeds,  many  Chinese  traders 
and  Spaniards  live  on  the  islands ;  and  now  there  are  many  Americans. 

The  United  States  Government  is  inclined  to  promote  Philippine 
independence  as  rapidly  as  the  safety  and  permanent  interests  of  the 
islands  will  permit.  As  a  pledge  of  good  faith,  the  Governmental  Com- 
mission, consisting  of  the  Governor-General  and  eight  associates,  at 
first  entirely  Americans,  has  now  a  majority  of  native  members.  The 
administrative  offices  are  gradually  being  relinquished  to  the  natives  of 
the  islands.  The  advance  in  public  health,  sanitation,  education,  and 
financial  independence  has  been  marked  in  recent  years. 


The  Development  of  the  Oil  Industry  in  the  Weetem  States. 

p.  79,  Advanced  Geography. 
Formerly  no  region  in  the  world  produced  so  much  oil  as  Western 
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Eastern  Ohio;  but  now  this  region 
is  rivaled  by  California  and  a  part  of  the  Gulf  region  in  Texas  and 
Louisiana. 


Mineral  Products  in  the  Western  States, 
p.  155,  Advanced  Geography. 

Coal,  Petroleum,  and  Other  Materials. 

Coal,  some  of  it  of  excellent  quality,  is  found  in  many  sections,  being 
mined  in  almost  all  the  Western  States,  but  the  greatest  amount  comes 
from  Colorado.  In  coal  production,  Colorado  ranks  seventh  among 
the  states  of  the  country.  Among  Western  States,  Wyoming  and 
Washington  are  next  in  coal  production.  Nearly  every  one  of  the 
Western  States  has  coal  beds,  which  are  bound  to  be  of  great  value  in 
the  future. 

Petroleum  is  another  valuable  product  in  the  West.  Enormous 
quantities  have  been  found  in  California,  and  that  state  now  produces 
more  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  So  much  is  produced,  in  fact, 
that  it  is  used  on  railway  engines  in  place  of  coal. 

There  are  many  other  mineral  products  in  the  Western  States, 
including  building  and  semi-precious  stones,  which  are  obtained  in 
California,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  other  states. 


P.  195,  Introductory  Geography. 
P.  154,  Advanced  Geography. 

Discovery  of  remarkable  new  mining  fields  in  Nevada  has  made  it 
first  in  the  production  of  silver.  At  present  Colorado  produces  more 
gold  than  any  other  state  and  ranks  fourth  in  the  production  of  silver. 
Arizona  now  ranks  first  among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  the  production 
of  copper.  California  ranks  second  among  our  states  in  the  production 
of  gold,  Utah  third  in  silver  and  lead,  and  Idaho  second  in  lead  and 
fifth  in  silver.  The  mines  of  Montana  are  very  extensive,  and  the  state 
is  now  second  in  the  production  of  silver  and  copper. 


The  Development  of  the  Rice  Industry  in  California. 

Insert  on  Page  161,  Advanced  Geography. 
In  1909  the  Department  of  Agriculture  made  experimental  plantings 
of  rice  in  the  vicinity  of  Biggs,  Butte  County.  From  that  time,  the 
rice  area  has  increased  at  a  surprising  rate,  and  rice  is  fast  becoming 
one  of  the  principal  crops  of  the  interior  valleys  of  California.  The 
future  of  the  rice  industry  seems  bright,  and  a  large  increase  in  the 
acreage  seems  assured. 

The  Introduction  of  Portland  Cement. 
P.  83,  Advanced  Geography. 
Portland  cement  has  become  of  great  importance  within  the  last 
few  years.  It  is  made  in  many  places  in  the  East,  especially  in  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  in  the  West,  especially  in  Colo- 
rado and  California.  To  make  it,  limestone  is  ground  fine  and  mixed 
with  coal  dust,  clay  containing  silica,  and  other  pulverized  minerals. 
This  mixture  is  placed  in  a  furnace,  where  the  burning  coal  dust  gives 
out  so  much  heat  that  the  mixture  melts.  It  comes  out  of  the  furnace 
as  a  kind  of  clinker,  which  is  then  ground  into  fine  powder  for  use. 
This  cement  has  the  valuable  property  of  becoming  hard  like  rock,  or 
setting,  when  water  is  added.  It  is  used  for  sidewalks,  for  buildings, 
dams,  bridges,  and  many  other  structures,  taking  the  place  of  wood, 
stone  and  iron. 

Reclamation  in  California. 

Adapted  from  the  report  of  the  California  Reclamation  Board. 

Page  570,  Advanced  Geography.     (Great  Valley  Region.) 
The  importance  of  this  project  of  controlling  the  floods  in  the  great 
river  valleys  of  California  is  being  realized  by  the  work  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Reclamation  Board. 

There  are  1,726,553  acres  of  land  in  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  Drainage  District  subject  to  overflow.  About  500,000  acres 
are  now  either  partly  or  completely  reclaimed.  Plans  have  been  made 
to  reclaim  an  additional  250,000  acres,  and  the  work  has  been  started. 
There  are  still  about  1,000,000  acres  unreclaimed,  with  no  plans  in 
sight,  and  no  plans  practicable,  unless  a  flood  control  project  of  con- 
siderable proportions  can  be  carried  through.  The  consideration  of 
this  project  is  occupying  the  attention  of  many  interested  in  the  future 
of  these  flooded  lands,  and  indirectly  in  the  increase  in  wealth  and 
population  of  the  state. 


01  the  1,000,000  acres  now  lost  to  reclamation  which  can  be  reclaimed 
if  the  project  is  carried  out,  most  of  the  land  has  at  present  nothing 
but  a  nominal  and  speculative  value.  Some  is  held  at  from  $15  to  $40 
per  acre,  because  of  the  opportunity  for  summer  cropping.  All  of 
this  land  permanently  reclaimed  would  be  worth  $250  per  acre,  and 
the  cost  of  reclamation  and  project  assessment  would  vary  from  $75  to 
$150.  There  would  be  added  immediately  to  the  wealth  of  the  state, 
in  increased  value  of  this  land  for  assessment,  as  well  as  productive 
purposes,  at  least  $200  per  acre,  or  $200,000,000. 

This  land  reclaimed  would  be  capable  of  intensive  cultivation  and  the 
growing  of  valuable  crops.  It  would  rent  for  from  $15  to  $35  per  acre 
per  year,  and  its  products  would  be  worth  from  $40  to  $200  per 
acre.  At  a  low  average  figure  the  1,000,000  acres  would  produce  event- 
ually $60,000,000  per  year — and  with  the  advantages  offered  by  the 
Panama  canal  in  markets  it  probably  would  not  be  many  years  until 
the  entire  acreage  would  be  producing  at  this  rate. 

In  population  the  results  would  be  equally  marked.  Under  con- 
tinuance of  existing  conditions  this  1,000,000  acres  will  never  support 
any  population.  The  750,000  acres  will  support  but  a  small  number  of 
homes,  because  of  danger  from  floods.  After  completicm  of  the  flood 
control  project  the  entire  district  will  rapidly  fill  with  fine  homes,  and 
in  time  support  millions  of  desirable  citizens,  living  in  comfort  and 
luxury  from  the  products  of  the  soil  and  from  the  business  enterprises 
created  by  such  activities. 


Activity  of  Mt.  Lassen. 
Pp.  6  and  624,  Advanced  Geography. 

Mt.  Lassen,  in  Shasta  County,  has  long  been  regarded  as  an  extinct 
volcano,  similar  to  Mt.  Shasta,  Mt.  Hood,  and  the  other  snowy  peaks  of 
the  Cascade  Range.  From  them  in  ages  past  have  come  the  vast  lava 
flows  and  blankets  of  ashes,  tuffs  and  pumice  that  have  built  up  the 
volcanic  plains  and  table-lands  and  hills  of  Northern  California  and 
Oregon.  Indeed,  Lassen  has  been  active  within  a  hundred  years,  as 
pine  trees,  partly  burned  by  lava,  are  still  found  at  Cinder  Cone, 
Dear  by. 

In  May,  1914,  the  mountain  again  resumed  activity.  For  a  year 
now  it  has  been  sending  up  clouds  of  steam,  smoke  and  volcanic  dust, 
with  an  occasional  explosion  from  the  summit  that  shoots  up  showers 
of  red  hot  rocks  as  well  as  tall  towers  of  dust  and  vapor.  Some  of  the 
high  meadows  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountain,  particularly  along  Hat 


Creek  and  Lost  Creek,  have  been  covered  deep  with  a  white  mud,  formed 
by  the  ejected  materials  mixed  with  melted  snow.  This  flood  sweeps 
down  with  such  force  that  it  uproots  great  trees  and  tears  them  to  pieces 
and  covers  the  mountain  meadows  sometimes  twenty  feet  deep.  This 
debris  soon  hardens  so  that  horses  and  wagons  pass  over  it,  above  houses 
and  barns  and  haystacks  and  trees,  as  on  a  cement  pavement. 

It  is  of  interest  to  know  that  the  only  active  volcano  in  the  United 
States  is  in  California.  It  is  so  accessible  that  one  may  drive  his  auto- 
mobile within  three  or  four  miles  of  the  smoking  summit  and  make  his 
chilly  camp  by  a  mountain  lake,  with  the  volcanic  exhibition  fully 
spread  out  before  his  eyes.  No  one  knows  what  the  future  may  bring 
forth. 


The  Earthquake  of  1906. 
P.  624,  Advanced  Geography. 

The  great  earthquake  which  occurred  in  1906  followed  the  axis  of 
an  ancient  fault,  the  Portola-Tomales  fault,  or  San  Andreas  fault. 
The  course  of  this  fault  is  in  almost  a  straight  line  from  Point  Arena 
in  Mendocino  County  to  Chittenden  in  Monterey  County,  a  distance  of 
192  miles. 

Buildings  were  destroyed  in  great  numbers  within  the  area  of 
disturbance.  Stanford  University  suffered  great  loss.  The  city  of 
Santa  Rosa  also  was  particularly  unfortunate  in  experiencing  a  very 
heavy  shock. 

But  it  was  fire,  not  earthquake,  that  destroyed  San  Francisco.  So 
soon,  however,  did  the  city  rise  from  the  ashes  that  it  is  often  called  the 
Phoenix  City.  San  Francisco  stands  today  the  fulfillment  of  the 
prophecy  made  at  the  time,  that  for  every  man  who  leaves  in  fear, 
there  will  return  ten  men  who  will  love  the  land  where  nature  is  so 
gracious,  man  so  free-limbed,  and  where  the  very  stones  are  alive  with 
the  forces  of  creation. 

P.  66,  Advanced  Geography.     (Last  two  lines.) 
Read  **The  working  day  is  eight  hours  long." 

P.  549-550,  Advanced  Geography. 

Omit  second  half  of  page  549  and  all  of  page  550,  because  the 
material  cited  for  reference  is  out  of  print. 

As  a  substitute  for  these  references,  a  copy  of  the  last  report  of  the 
California  Development  Board  will  be  sent  to  every  teacher  of  the 
grammar  grades. 


TABLES  OF  POPULATION. 

The  following  tables  of  population  are  those  from  the  census  of  1910, 
and  are  to  take  the  place  of  similar  tables  in  the  appendix  of  both  the 
Introductory  and  the  Advanced  Geographies. 


States  and  Territories  of  the  United  States. 


Population 
1910 

Alabama   2,138,093 

Alaska    64,356 

Arizona    204,354 

Arkansas    1,574,449 

California    2,377.549 

Colorado   . 799,024 

Connecticut    1,114,756 

Delaware    202,322 

District  of  Columbia 331,069 

Florida    752,619 

Georgia   2,609,121 

Guam    11,973 

Hawaiian  Islands 191,909 

Idaho    325,594 

Illinois    — ^ 5,638,591 

Indiana   2,700,876 

Iowa    2,224,771 

Kansas    1,690,949 

Kentucky    2,289,905 

Louisiana    1,656,388 

Maine    -  742,371 

Maryland    1,295,346 

Massachusetts    3,366,416 

Michigan    2,810,173 

Minnesota    2,075,708 

Mississippi    1,797,114 

Missouri    3,293.335 

Montana 376,053 

Nebraska    1,192,214 


Population 
1910 

Nevada   81,875 

New  Hampshire   430,572 

New  Jersey 2,537,167 

New  Mexico 327,301 

New   York   9,113,614 

North  Carolina 2,206.287 

North  Dakota 557,056 

Ohio    __-  4,767,121 

Oklahoma   1,657,155 

Oregon    672,765 

Pennsylvania    7,665,111 

Philippine   Islands    8,276,802 

Porto  Rico 1,118,012 

Rhode  Island 542,610 

South  Carolina   1,515,400 

South  Dakota 583,888 

Tennessee    2,184,789 

Texas    3,896,542 

Tutuila    6,780 

Utah    373,351 

Vermont    355,956 

Virginia    2,061,612 

Washington    1,141,990 

West  Virginia 1,221,119 

Wisconsin    2,333,860 

Wyoming    145,965 

United    States,    total 93,402,151 

United  States  (without  Alaska, 

Phil.    Is.,    etc.) 91,972,266 


Twenty-five  of  the  Largest 

Population 

1.  London,  England,  1910 4,872,702  13. 

Greater   London,    1910 7,537,196  14. 

2.  New  York,  U.  S.,  1910 4,766,883  15. 

3.  Paris,   France,   1911 2,846,986  16. 

4.  Tokyo,   Japan,   1909 2,168,069  17. 

5.  Chicago,   U.   S.,  1910 2,185,283  18. 

6.  Berlin,    Germany,    1910___  2.070.695  19. 

7.  Vienna,   Aus.-Hun.,   1911__  2,004.291  20. 

8.  Petrograd,    Russia,    1910__  1,907.708  21. 

9.  Canton,   China   1,600,000  22. 

10.  Philadelphia,   U.   S.,  1910.  1.549,008  23. 

11.  Moscow,    Russia,    1907 1.359.254  24. 

12.  Buenos  Aires,  Argen.,  1911  1,326,994  25. 

9 


Cities  in  the  World. 

Population 

Calcutta,  India,  1910 1,216,514 

Constantinople,  Turkey  ___  1,125,000 

Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,117,151 

Shanghai,  China 1,000,000 

Tientsin,  China,  1910 1,000.000 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil, '09  1,000,000 

Bombay,    India,   1910 972,892 

Hamburg,  Germany,  1910_  936,000 
Liverpool,  England,  1910-  767,606 
Glasgow,    Scotland,   1909_-      872,021 

Warsaw,   Russia,  1901 756.426 

Budapest,  Au8.-Hun.,  1901  732.322 
Barcelona,    Spain,   1911___      700,000 


Twenty-five  Largest  Cities  in  the  United  States. 

Population  Population 

1910  1910 

1.  New  York,  N.   Y 4,766,883  14.  Newark,   N.  J 347,469 

2.  Chicago,   III. 2,185.283  15.  New  Orleans,  La 839.075 

3.  Philadelphia,  Pa. 1,549,008  16.  Washington,    D.    O 331,069 

4.  St.   Louis,  Mo 687,029  17.  Los   Angeles,    Cal 319,198 

5.  Boston,    Mass.    670,585  18.  Minneapolis,  Minn. 301,408 

6.  Cleveland,   Ohio   560,663  19.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 267,779 

7.  Baltimore,  Md. 558,485  20.  Kansas   City,  Mo 248,331 

8.  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 533,905  21.  Seattle,  Wash. 237,194 

9.  Detroit,    Mich.    465,766  22.  Indianapolis,   Ind.    233,650 

10.  Buffalo,   N.  Y 423,715  23.  Providence,  R.  I 224,326 

11.  San   Francisco,   Cal 416,912  24.  Louisville,  Ky. 223,928 

12.  Milwaukee,   Wis.   373,857  25.  Rochester,  N.  Y 218,146 

13.  Cincinnati,    Ohio    364,463 


Cities  of  the  United  States  With  25,000  or  More  Inhabitants  in  1910; 
and  a  Few  Others,  Mostly  Mentioned  in  the  Book. 

Population  Population 

1910  1910 

Akron,  Ohio 69,067  Bellingham,  Wash. 24,296 

Albany,  N.  Y 100,253  Berkeley,   Cal.   40,434 

Albuquerque,    N.    M 11,020  Biddeford,    Me.    17,079 

Allentown,  Pa. 51,913  Billings,   Mont. 10,031 

Altoona,    Pa.    52,127  Binghampton,    N.    Y 48,443 

Amsterdam,    N.    Y 31,267  Birmingham,    Ala.    132,685 

Anaconda,  Mont. 10,134  Bisbee,   Ariz.    9,019 

Annapolis,   Md.   8,609  Bismarck,    N.    D 5,443 

Ann    Arbor,    Mich 14,817  Bloomington,  III. 25,768 

Asheville,   N.    C 18,762  Boise,    Idaho    17,358 

Ashland,   Wis. 11,594  Boston,   Mass.   670,585 

Astoria,  Ore.  9,599  Bradford,   Pa.   14,544 

Atchison,  Kan. 16,429  Bridgeport,    Conn.    —.. 102,054 

Atlanta,    Ga.    154,839  Brockton,   Mass.   56,878 

Atlantic  City,   N.   J 46,150  Brookline,  Mass. 27,792 

Auburn,   Me.   15,064  Brunswick,    Ga.    10,182 

Auburn,    N.   Y 34,668  Buffalo,    N.    Y 423,715 

Augusta,    Ga.    41,040  Burlington,  Vt. 20,463 

Augusta,  Me. 13,211  Butte,  Mont.   39,165 

Aurora,   111.   29,807  Cambridge,  Mass.  104,839 

Austin,  Texas   29,860  Camden,    N.    J 94,538 

Baltimore,  Md. 558,485  Canton,  Ohio 50,217 

Bangor,  Me. 24,803  Carson   City,    Nev 2,466 

Barre,   Vt.   10,734  Cedar    Rapids,    Iowa 32,811 

Bath,    Me.    9,396  Champaign,    III.    12,421 

Baton  Rouge,  La. 14,897  Charleston,   S.  C 58,833 

Battle  Creek,  Mich. 25,267  Charleston,   W.   Va 22,996 

Bay  City,  Mich. 45,166  Charlotte,    N.    C 34,014 

Bayonne,    N.    J . 55,545  Chattanooga,   Tenn.    44,604 


le 


Population  Population 

1110  1910 

Chelsea,    Mass.    32,452  Galveston,  Texas 36,981 

Chester,    Pa.    38,537  Gloucester,  Mass. .  24,398 

Cheyenne,   Wyo.    11,320  Goldfield,  Nev. 4,838 

Chicago,    111.    2,185,283  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 112,571 

Chicopee,    Mass.    25,401  Greeley,   Colo.    8,179 

Cincinnati,    Ohio    364,463  Green   Bay,    Wis 25,236 

Clarksville,  Tenn. 8,548  Greenville,    S.    C 15,741 

Cleveland,    Ohio    560,663  Guthrie,  Okla. 11,654 

Clinton,   Iowa   25,577  Hamilton,    Ohio    35,279 

Colorado   Springs,    Colo 29,078  Harrisburg,    Pa.    64.186 

Columbia,   S.   C 26,319  Hartford,   Conn.    98,915 

Columbus,    Ga.    20,554  Haverhill,   Mass. 44,115 

Columbus,    Ohio    181,548  Hazelton,  Pa. 25,452 

Concord,  N.  H 21,497  Helena,    Mont.    12,515 

Council    Bluffs,    Iowa 29,292  High  Point,  N.  C 9,525 

Covington,   Ky.   53,270  Hilo,  Hawaiian  Islands 6,745 

Cripple   Creek,    Colo 6,206  Hoboken,    N.    J 70,324 

Dallas,   Texas   92,104  Holyoke,  Mass. 57,730 

Danville,   111.  27,871  Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands—  52,183 

Danville,    Va.    19,020  Hot   Springs,   Ark 14,434 

Davenport,  Iowa 43,028  Houghton,    Mich.    5,113 

Dayton,  Ohio 116,577  Houston,    Texas    78,800 

Decatur,    111.    31,140  Huntington,    W.    Va 31,161 

Denver,    Colo.    213,381  Iluntsville,   Ala.    : 7,611 

Des   Moines,    Iowa ^ 86,368  Indianapolis,  Ind. 233,650 

Detroit,  Mich. 465,766  Ishpeming,   Mich.    12,448 

Douglas,  Ariz. 6,437  Ithaca,    N.   Y 14,802 

Dover,   Del.   3,720  Jackson,   Mich.   31,433 

Dover,    N.    H._^ 13,247  Jackson,    Miss.    21,262 

Dubuque,    Iowa    38,494  Jacksonville,  Fla.  57,699 

Duluth,  Minn. 78,466  Jamestown,  N.  Y 31,297 

Durham,   N.   C 18,241  Jefferson   City,   Mo 11.850 

Easton,   Pa.   28,523  Jersey  City,  N.  J 267,779 

East  Orange,  N.  J 34,371  Johnstown,  Pa, 55,482 

Eastport,   Me.   4,961  Joliet,    111.    34,670 

East  St.  Louis,  111 58,547  Joplin,    Mo.    32,073 

Elgin,  111. 25,976  Juneau,    Alaska    1,644 

Elizabeth,   N.   J 73,409  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 39,437 

Elmira,   N.  Y 37,176  Kansas    City,    Kan 82,331 

El    Paso,    Texas 39,279  Kansas    City,    Mo 248,381 

Erie,   Pa.    66,525  Key    West,    Fla 19,945 

Evanston,    111.   24,978  Kingston,   N.   Y 25,908 

Evansville,    Ind.    69,647  Knoxville,  Tenn. 36,346 

Everett,    Mass.    33,484  La    Crosse,    Wis 30,417 

Fall  River,  Mass. 119,295  Lancaster,    Pa.    47,227 

Fargo,    N.    D 14,331  Lansing,   Mich.    31,229 

Findlay,  Ohio 14,858  Laramie,   Wyo.    8,237 

Fitchburg,  Mass. 37,826  Lawrence,  Mass. 85,892 

Flint,  Mich. 38,550  Leadville,  Colo. 7,508 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 63.933  Lewiston,   Idaho    6,043 

Fort   Worth,   Texas 73,312  Lewiston,   Me.   26,247 

Frankfort,   Ky.   10,465  Lexington,    Ky.    35.099 

Fresno,  Gal. 24,892  Lima,   Ohio    30,508 


Population  Population 

1910  1910 

Lincoln,  Neb. 43,973    Olympia,  Wash. 6,996 

Little  Rock,  Ark 45,941    Omaha,  Neb. 124,096 

Lockport,  N.  Y 17,970    Orange,  N.  J 29,630 

Lorain,  Ohio 28,833    Oshkosh,  Wis 33,062 

Los  Angeles,  Gal 319,198    Oswego,  N.  Y 23,368 

Louisville,  Ky. 223,928    Pasadena,  Gal. 30,291 

Lowell,  Mass. 106,294    Passaic,  N.  J 54,773 

Lynchburg,  Va. 29,494    Paterson,  N.  J 125,600 

Lynn,  Mass. 89,330    Pawtucket,  R.  I 51,622 

Macon,  Ga. 40,665    Pensacola,  Pla. 22,982 

Madison,  Wis. 25,531    Peoria,  111. 66,950 

Maiden,  Mass. 44,404    Perth  Amboy,  N.  J 32,121 

Manchester,  N.  H 70,063    Petersburg,  Va. 24,147 

Manila,  Philippines Philadelphia,  Pa. 1,549,008 

Marquette,  Mich. 11,503    Phoenix,  Ariz. 11,134 

McKeesport,  Pa. 42,694    Pierre,  S.  D 3,656 

Memphis,  Tenn. 131,105    Pittsburgh,  Pa. 533,905 

Meriden,  Gonn. 27,265    Pittsfield,  Mass. 32,121 

Miami,  Fla. 5,471    Plymouth,  Mass. 12,141 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 373,857    Pomona,  Gal. 10,207 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 301,408    Ponce,  Porto  Rico 35,027 

Mobile,  Ala. 51,521    Portland,  Me. 58,571 

Montgomery,  Ala. 38,136    Portland,  Ore. 207,214 

Montpelier,   Vt. 7,850    Portsmouth,  N.  H 11,269 

Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 30,919    Portsmouth,  Va. 33,190 

Muskogee,   Okla.   __1 25,278    Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y 27,933 

Nashua,  N.  H 26,005    Prescott,  Ariz. 5,092 

Nashville,  Tenn. 110,364    Providence,  R.  I 224,326 

Natchez,  Miss. 11,791    Provinoetown,  Mass. 4,369 

Newark,  N.  J 347,469    Pueblo,  Golo. 44,395 

Newark,  Ohio 25,404    Quincy,  111. 36,587 

New  Bedford,  Mass 96,652    Quincy,  Mass. 32,642 

New  Britain,  Gonn 43,916    Racine,  Wis. 38,002 

Newburgh,   N.    Y 27,805    Raleigh,  N.  G 19,218 

Newcastle,  Pa. 36,280    Reading,  Pa 96,071 

New  Haven,  Gonn 133,605    Redlands,  Gal. 10,449 

New  Orleans,  La 339,075    Richmond,  Va. 127,628 

Newport,  Ky. 30,309    Riverside,  Gal. 15,212 

Newport,  R.  I 27,149    Roanoke,  Va. 34,874 

Newport  News,  Va 20,205    Rochester,  N.  Y 218,149 

New  Rochelle,  N.  Y 28,867    Rockford,  111. 45,401 

Newton,  Mass. 39,806    Rome,  Ga. 12,099 

New  York,  N.  Y 4,766,883    Rutland,  Vt. 13,546 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y 30,445    Sacramento,  Gal. 44,696 

Nome  Gity,  Alaska 2,600    Saginaw,  Mich. 50,510 

Norfolk,  Va. 67,452    St.  Augustine,  Fla 5,494 

Norristown,  Pa. 27,875    St.  Joseph,  Mo 77,403 

North   Yakima,  Wash 14,082    St.  Louis,  Mo 687,029 

Oakland,  Gal. 150,174    St.  Paul,  Minn 214,744 

Ogden,  Utah 25,580    Salem,  Mass. 43,697 

Oil  Gity,  Pa •       15,657    Salem,  Ore 14,094 

Oklahoma  Gity,  Okla 64,205   Salt  Lake  Gity,  Utah 92,777 

Olean,  N.  Y 14,743    San  Antonio,  Texas 96,614 

12 


Population  Population 

1910  1910 

San   Bernardino,   Cal 12,779  Taunton,  Mass. 34,259 

San  Diego,   Cal 39,578  Terre   Haute,   Ind 58,157 

San  Francisco,  Cal 416,912  Toledo,   Ohio  168,497 

San   Jose,    Cal 28,946  Tonopah,  Nev. 3,900 

San  Juan,  Porto  Kico 48,716  Topeka.  Kan. 43,684 

Santa  Fe,  N.  M 5,072  Trenton,  N.  J. 96,815 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich 12,615  Troy,  N.  Y 76,813 

Savannah,    Ga.    65,064  Tucson,    Ariz.    13,193 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 72,826  Utica,    N.   Y 74,419 

Scranton,   Pa.   129,867  Vicksburg,  Miss. 20,814 

Seattle,    Wash.    237,194  Virginia  City,  Nev 2,244 

Shawnee,  Okla. 12,474  Waco,  Texas 26,425 

Sheboygan,  Wis.   26,398  Walla  Walla,   Wash 19,363 

Shenandoah,  Pa. 25.774  Waltham,   Mass.   27,834 

Shreveport,  La 28,015  Warwick,    R.    I 26,629 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 47,828  W^ashington,    D.    C 331,069 

Sioux  Falls,  S.  D 14,094  Waterbury,  Conn. 73,141 

Sitka,   Alaska   1,039  Waterloo,    Iowa    26,693 

Skagway,   Alaska   872  Watertown,   N.   Y 26,730 

Somerville,   Mass.   77,236  Waterville,    Me.    11,458 

South  Bend,  Ind 53,684  West   Hoboken,   N.   J 35,403 

South   Omaha,  Neb 26,259  Wheeling,    W.    Va 41,641 

Spartanburg,  S.  C 17,519  Wichita,  Kan. 52,450 

Spokane,    Wash.    10i,402   Wilkes-Barre,    Pa 67,105 

Springfield,   111.   51,678  Williamsport,  Pa. 31,860 

Springfield,  Mass. 88,926  Wilmington,   Del.   87,411 

Springfield,    Mo.    35,201  Wilmington,  N.  C 25,748 

Springfield,   Ohio,   46,921   Winona,   Minn.   18,583 

Stamford,   Conn. 25,138  Woonsocket,    R.    I 38,125 

Stockton,    Cal.    23,253  Worcester,   Mass.    145,986 

Superior,    Wis.    40,384  Yonkers,    N.    Y 79,803 

Syracuse,    N.   Y 137,249  York,    Pa.    44,750 

Tacoma,  Wash ^ 83,743  Youngstown,   Ohio   79,066 

Tallahassee,  Fla. 5.018  Zanesville,    Ohio    28,026 

Tampa,  Fla. 87,782 


IS 


N'Ty|l 


J  BELIEVE  In  the  United  States  of  America 
as  a  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people, 
for  the  people;  whose  just  powers  are  derived 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  a  democracy 
in  a  republic;  a  sovereign  nation  of  many  sover- 
eign states;  a  perfect  union,  one  and  inseparable; 
established  upon  those  principles  of  Freedom, 
Equality,  Justice,  and  Humanity  for  which 
American  patriots  sacrificed  their  lives  and 
fortunes. 

I  THEREFORE  believe  it  is  my  duty  to  my  coun- 
try to  love  it;  to  support  its  Constitution;  to 
obey  its  laws;  to  respect  its  FLAG;  and  to 
defend  it  against  all  enemies. 

Authorized  Version. 


Fia.  A. 
Yosemite  Falls. 


Go  forth  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 
To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around  — 
Earth  and  her  waters,  and  the  depths  of  air,  — 
'Oomes  ft  ttill  vo*o«  —  Wiijuum  Owll«h  Bxtamt. 


CALIFORNIA   5TATL   5LRIL5 


ADVANCED  GEOGRAPHY 


TARR  AND  McMURRY 


REVISED  BY 

THE  TEXT-BOOK  COMMITTEE 

AND  APPROVED  BY 

THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 


A  Native  Son. 
Blessings  on  thee,  little  man,  •  •  • 


SACRAMENTO 
Robert  L.  Telfer,  Supt.  State  Printing. 


Copyright,  1909, 
By  the  people  OF  THE  STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Copyright,  1900,  1901,  1902,  1*J0^, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


-      )      i  0* 

i"  ./'•  (••1  • 
>  J'  ^      >   *%  i 


EDUCATION  DEPT 


In  the  compilation  of  this  work  certain  matter  from  the  Advanced 
Geography  by  Ralph  S.  Tarr  and  Frank  M.  McMurry  has  been  used. 
All  such  matter  is  protected  by  the  copyright  entries  noted  above. 


16th  Ed.     15M     1920 


PEEFACE    ' 

In  the  plan  of  this  volume  the  authors  have  left  the  beaten  track 
to  such  an  extent  that  some  words  of  explanation  seem  in  place. 

General  Geography. — Probably  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
geography  for  Grammar  School  grades  is  that  dealing  with  seasons, 
winds,  rainfall,  temperature,  etc.  It  ordinarily  occupies  a  con- 
siderable number  of  pages  at  the  beginning  of  the  larger  book,  and 
follows  immediately  upon  Primary  Geography. 

This  arrangement  requires  pupils  to  spring  from  a  meager  study 
of  simple,  concrete  facts  to  the  highest  abstractions  in  the  entire 
subject;  and,  what  makes  the  matter  worse,  these  broad  abstractions 
are  usually  only  very  briefly  stated. 

The  authors  of  this  volume  have  followed  a  different  plan. 
Only  three  chapters,  at  the  beginning  of  the  book,  precede  the  in- 
tensive treatment  of  the  United  States.  The  first  is  a  physiographic 
history  of  the  continent,  showing  how  its  principal  mountain  ranges 
and  valleys  came  into  existence;  how  its  c(^l  beds  were  formed; 
what  were  the  effects  of  the  great. Ice  Age;  and  what  have  been  the 
more  recent  changes  in  the  coast  line,  with  their  results.  Then  comes 
a  chapter  on  the  Plants,  Animals,  and  Peoples  of  North  America; 
and  following  that  is  a  treatment  of  Latitude  and  Longitude. 

Only  so  much  is  presented  before  taking  up  the  United  States, 
because  that  is  all  that  seems  really  necessary.  Whatever  further 
facts  have  been  needed  for  North  America  in  regard  to  seasonal 
changes,  winds,  etc.,  have  been  plainly  stated,  when  needed,  just  as 
other  concrete  facts  have  been.  After  our  continent  is  finished 
and  a  fair  number  of  concrete  data,  bearing  on  these  matters,  has 
been  collected,  these  topics  themselves  are  treated  in  much  detail. 
By  this  arrangement,  the  study  of  these 'difficult  subjects  has  been 
postponed  one  year,  and  they  are  then  approached  somewhat  induc- 
tively. The  authors  regard  this  as  one  of  the  most  important  among 
their  proposed  clianges  in  method. 

The  general  principles  in  regard  to  industries,  distribution  of 
inhabitants,  mutual  relation  of  city  and  country,  and  dependence  of 

M69884 


Yi  PBEFACE 

various  sections  upon  one  another,  form  another  subject  which,  con- 
trary to  custom,  is  treated  in  the  middle  and  latter  parts  of  the 
volume.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  these  broad  truths  approach 
abstractions  in  their  nature,  and  are,  consequently,  too  difficult  to 
be  earlier  appreciated  by  children.  They  are,  moreover,  to  a  large 
extent,  a  summary  of  what  has  preceded,  and,  therefore,  naturally 
come  last.  A  more  inductive  approach  is,  therefore,  again  highly 
desirable.  Their  great  importance,  also,  has  caused  more  than  the 
usual  amount  of  space  to  be  given  to  them. 

Physiographic  Basis  and  Causal  Sequence.  —  The  authors  believe 
that  rational  geography  must  rest  upon  a  physiographic  foundation. 
It  is  physiographic  conditions  which  most  often  furnish  the  reasons 
for  the  location  of  human  industries,  the  development  of  transporta- 
tion routes,  the  situation  of  cities,  etc.  In  other  words,  when  the 
physiographic  facts  about  a  given  region  are  clearly  grasped,  most 
of  the  other  geographic  facts  easily  arrange  themselves  as  links  in  a 
causal  chain.  'Thus  the  many  details  touching  a  certain  locality  are 
taught  in  relation  with  one  another,  so  that  they  approach  the  form 
of  a  narrative,  rather  than  that  of  a  mere  list  of  statements. 

Physiography  has,  therefore,  been  introduced  freely ;  but  not  too 
freely,  provided  each  physical  fact  is  shown  really  to  function  in 
man's  relation  to  the  earth.  Physiography  that  is  clearly  shown  to 
have  a  real  bearing  upon  man  greatly  enriches  the  subject  of  geog- 
raphy; it  is  the  unused  physical  geography  that  is  a  stumbling-block 
in  the  grades,  and  this  we  have  tried  to  avoid. 

Review  of  North  America.  —  A  common  defect  in  the  teaching 
of  geography  is  that  the  facts  previously  learned  about  the  United 
States  fade  from  the  pupil's  memory  while  other  countries  are  being 
studied.  Yet  the  relation  between  North  America  and  the  other  con- 
tinents is  so  marked  that  this  defect  is  unnecessary.  For  example, 
most  of  the  industries  and  important  principles  of  physiography  and 
climate  have  received  the  attention  of  a  child  when  he  has  completed 
a  general  study  of  the  United  States.  Foreign  lands  illustrate  the 
same  great  ideas  under  slightly  different  conditions.  This  means 
that  the  comprehension  of  foreign  countries  may  best  be  gained  by 
our  children  if  they  use  their  previous  knowledge  of  the  United 
States  as  a  basis  of  comparison.  If,  then,  this  old  related  knowledge 
is  carefully  called  to  mind  when  the  physiography,  climate,  and 
industries  of  a  foreign  land  are  approached,  our  pupils  will  not 
only  secure  a  fuller  appreciation  of  that  region,  but  will  also  keep 


fEEFAOM  lii 

fresh  their  knowledge  of  the  United  States  by  bringing  it  into 
use. 

The  above  has  been  a  controlling  idea  in  preparing  this  volume. 
Accordingly  in  approaching  the  physiography  of  South  America 
(p.  285),  the  physiography  and  climate  of  Europe  (pp.  317-323), 
grazing  in  Argentina  (p.  297),  etc.,  we  have  reproduced  the  cor- 
responding situation  in  our  own  country  at  some  length.  Besides 
this,  we  have  included  in  the  text  scores  of  brief  comparisons  with 
the  United  States.  By  this  means  incidental  reviews  are  continually 
provided,  which  are  especially  attractive  to  both  teachers  and  pupils 
because  they  contain  more  of  motive  than  the  ordinary  "  review  for 
review's  sake." 

To  supplement  this  kind  of  review  several  sets  of  questions, 
which  call  for  still  different  comparisons  with  the  United  States,  are 
included  in  the  book,  one  series  being  found  at  the  close  of  the  treat- 
ment of  each  continent.  These  are  likewise  rich  in  motive,  inas- 
much as  they  recall  leading  facts  in  regard  to  the  United  States  from 
varying  points  of  view.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  also  that  each 
set  at  the  same  time  reviews  another  continent  from  a  new  point  of 
view. 

Many  of  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  United  States  which  these 
questions  call  for  are  not  presented  in  the  text  which  treats  of  the 
various  continents,  and  answers  for  a  few  of  them  are  not  indicated 
in  the  maps.  Also  pupils  may  have  forgotten  some  of  the  impor- 
tant information  about  the  United  States.  For  these  reasons  Section 
XIII,  covering  eighteen  pages,  is  an  organized  review  of  North 
America  alone.  It  includes  the  principal  facts  about  our  continent 
which  every  pupil  should  know  on  completing  the  grades. 

The  title  of  the  last  section,  "The  United  States  compared 
with  Other  Countries,"  indicates  provision  for  still  further  review. 
It  has  seemed  to  the  authors  an  anti-climax  to  close  several  years* 
study  of  geography  with  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  lands  farthest  away 
from  us  and  of  least  interest  to  us.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been 
deemed  highly  important  that,  after  all  the  countries  of  the  world 
have  been  treated,  the  closing  chapter  should  summarize  the  situa- 
tion and  show  the  rank  of  our  own  land  and  its  relation  to  others. 
This  secures  a  final  reconsideration  of  the  principal  facts  in  our 
geography,  while  at  the  same  time  it  brings  them  into  proper  re- 
lation and  perspective. 

On  the  whole,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  reviews  should  occupy 


Tiii  FMEFACM 

a  large  part  of  the  time  of  instruction;  and  by  the  plan  followed  we 
hope  that  pupils  will  have  a  fairly  complete  knowledge  of  the  United 
States  and  the  rest  of  the  world  in  their  possession,  not  only  when 
they  finish  the  grades,  but  in  years  to  follow. 

Types.  —  Another  characteristic  of  this  volume  is  that  it  deals 
with  many  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  geography  at  some  length. 
As  was  suggested  in  the  Preface  of  the  Primary  Book,  the  basal  units 
for  the  study  of  geography,  although  constantly  in  use,  are  seldom 
adequately  presented  in  the  text-books.  This  applies  strikingly,  for 
example,  to  such  topics  as  farm,  cattle  ranch,  irrigation,  lumber  camp, 
and  factory.  In  order  to  remedy  this  defect  as  far  as  possible,  each 
subject  of  such  a  kind  is  presented  in  these  books  with  as  much  de- 
tail as  space  permits,  and  in  connection  with  that  section  of  country 
in  which  it  seems  most  prominent. 

For  example,  lumbering,  fishing,  and  the  manufacture  of  cloth, 
boots,  and  shoes  receive  their  most  detailed  treatment  in  connection 
with  New  England;  the  mining  of  coal  and  iron  are  and  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  goods  are  discussed  in  connection  with  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States;  and  gold  mining,  irrigation,  and  grazing  are  natu- 
rally included  under  the  Western  States. 

The  industries  and  objects  thus  described,  being  fairly  typical  of 
industries  and  objects  found  elsewhere,  are  on  that  account  worthy  of 
being  called  types.  Through  the  careful  presentation  of  such  types, 
vivid  pictures  and  an  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  are  assured. 

The  study  of  the  United  States  has,  as  suggested  above,  fur- 
nished occasion  for  detailed  treatment  of  most  geographic  types. 
Some  important  features  and  occupations,  however,  are  not  found 
in  the  United  States,  and  to  these  we  have  endeavored  to  give  the 
same  careful  consideration.  For  instance,  so  far  as  space  permits, 
the  Brazilian  forest  is  presented  as  a  type  of  tropical  forests  (p.  294). 
Other  illustrations  may  be  found  in  the  treatment  of  the  linen 
industry  on  page  336,  and  of  the  silk  industry  on  page  359.  'I'he 
object  is  to  continue  to  acquaint  the  learner  properly  with  the  basal 
units  of  geography. 

Relative  Worth  of  Facts.  —  Good  judgment  is  nothing  more  than 
proper  appreciation  of  the  relative  worth  of  knowledge.  Cer- 
tainly geography  should  be  utilized  for  the  development  of  this 
quality.  The  study  of  any  subject  by  types  tends  in  this  direction, 
because  types  themselves  are  the  topics  of  special  value.  The  fre- 
quent comparisons  provided  for  at  the  close  of  many  of  the  chapters 


FBEFAOM  IX 

accomplish  the  same  purpose,  for  they  lift  the  more  important 
thoughts  into  prominence  while  neglecting  non-essentials.  Similarly 
the  two  review  chapters,  one  a  Review  and  Comparison  of  our  states, 
the  other  a  Comparison  of  the  United  States  with  other  countries, 
distinguish  in  a  marked  way  the  leading  from  the  minor  facts.  But, 
above  all,  throughout  this  volume  the  subject-matter  in  each  chapter 
is  presented  under  few  headings,  so  that  the  learner  is  likely  to  be 
impressed  with  the  simplicity  of  the  situation.  The  authors,  at  least, 
cherish  the  hope  that  the  pupil  will  see  the  outline  clearly  even  in  the 
midst  of  the  necessary  mass  of  details.  Certainly  it  is  one  duty  of  a 
text  to  teach  a  child  to  separate  major  from  minor  points  and  to  carry 
the  outline  in  mind. 

The  need  of  more  attention  to  this  matter  of  perspective  is  most 
clearly  shown  in  the  study  of  the  United  States  by  individual  states. 
To  be  sure,  there  is  a  call  for  a  knowledge  of  our  own  country  by 
states,  and  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  meet  it  by  several  sets  of 
questions  which  require  a  careful  state  review.  But  when  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  United  States  is  presented  primarily  by  states,  the  child 
is  oppressed  and  confused  by  the  great  number  of  individual  facts 
which  have  apparently  the  same  rank.  Even  an  adult  cannot  easily 
escape  a  feeling  of  confusion  on  reading  a  few  pages  from  any  modern 
geography  that  divides  the  subject  into  such  small  units.  ''The 
remedy,  therefore,  is  to  proceed  by  much  larger  divisions,  i.e.  by 
groups  of  states. 

Thus  farming  by  irrigation  is  only  one  topic,  and  only  once 
treated,  for  the  entire  western  division  of  states.  Several  pages  are 
devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  subject,  including  the  manner  in  which 
irrigation  is  planned,  its  influence  on  the  value  of  land,  the  localities 
most  noted  for  irrigation,  and  the  cities  in  the  different  states  that 
are  largely  indebted  to  it  for  their  growth.  These  many  details  are 
associated  as  parts  of  one  story.  By  this  means  the  children's  minds 
may  be  led  to  dwell  long  enough  upon  one  topic  to  insure  interest  in 
it;  and  as  there  are  only  a  few  such  topics  in  the  entire  chapter  on 
the  Western  States,  each  indicated,  too,  by  special  type,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  keep  in  mind  the  leading  points. 

Similar  provision  for  relative  values  in  the  study  of  foreign 
countries  is  clearly  illustrated  in  the  chapter  on  the  British  Isles. 

Political  Maps.  —  Since  it  is  necessary  to  represent  more  places 
and  present  more  details,  the  political  maps  in  this  volume  are  for 
the  most  part  larger  than  in  the  Primary  Book;  but  they  are  of  the 


X  FBEFACM 

same  quality.  An  important  feature  is  the  grading  of  cities  according 
to  population — the  more  important  the  city,  the  larger  the  type  used. 
The  principal  features  of  relief  are  placed  upon  the  map,  though 
without  interfering  with  the  clearness  of  the  political  divisions.  In 
the  color  arrangement  care  has  been  used  to  gain  an  artistic  effect, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  preserve  the  distinctness  necessary  in  such 


No  attempt  has  been  made  to  preserve  the  same  scale  for  the 
different  maps.  One  of  the  objects  of  the  study  of  geography 
is  to  teach  the  meaning  and  use  of  maps.  To  do  this,  one  of 
the  first  and  most  fundamental  points  is  to  teach  the  pupil  to 
understand  the  meaning  and  importance  of  the  system  of  propor- 
tion, or  of  "scale."  In  one  book  are  maps  of  various  scales;  in 
the  first  atlas,  or  in  the  first  wall  map  which  the  pupil  sees,  there 
are  still  different  scales.  The  pupils  must  be  prepared  to  expect 
and  to  understand  these  differences,  and  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to 
see  that  they  are  so  prepared.  By  the  insertion  of  Pennsylvania  as 
a  key,  and  by  some  of  our  map  questions,  we  have  attempted  to  aid 
in  this  training  of  the  sense  of  proportion. 

Other  Illustrations.  —  Besides  the  relief  indicated  on  the  political 
maps  there  are  individual  relief  maps  made  especially  for  this  series. 
The  relief  maps  of  the  continents  are  pronounced  by  experts  to  be 
the  best  thus  far  made. 

The  city  maps  are  intended  to  serve  to  illustrate  the  surround- 
ings which  determine  the  growth  of  the  large  cities,  including,  of 
course,  the  transportation  facilities  by  water  and  by  rail.  Attention 
is  also  called  to  the  maps  showing  the  distribution  of  the  important 
industries  and  to  the  diagrams  that  accompany  them.  These  are  all 
placed  in  the  summaries  with  which  they  are  most  closely  related; 
but  the  teacher  will  naturally  find  occasion  to  use  them  and  refer  to 
them  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  earlier  sections.  A  series 
of  maps  is  also  introduced  which  gives  a  graphic  view  of  the 
density  of  population  of  the  continents.  All  the  railway  lines  of 
each  of  the  continents  excepting  Europe  are  also  shown  either  on 
the  political  maps  or  else  by  special  maps.  The  colonies  of  some 
of  the  leading  nations  are  given  in  two  full-page  illustrations; 
and  the  great  commercial  routes  of  the  world  are  represented 
by  a  single-page  map.  It  is  believed  that  this  large  number  of 
maps,  each  devoted  to  a  specific  object,  will  be  found  of  great 
ralue. 


J^RMJtACA  Xi 

Besides  the  maps  and  diagrams  there  are  many  half-tones  of 
photographs  selected  to  supplement  the  text.  They  are  not  intro- 
duced merely  as  pictures,  but  as  part  of  the  fund  of  information 
offered.  For  this  purpose  the  half-tone  is  the  best-adapted;  there 
is  reason  for  confidence  in  the  accuracy  of  such  views. 

Acknowledgments.  —  The  political  and  many  of  the  black  maps 
are  made  by  the  Matthews-Northrup  Company,  of  Buffalo;  the  relief 
maps,  by  E.  E.  Howell,  of  Washington.  The  world  maps  showing 
the  distribution  of  products  are  in  part  based  upon  maps  kindly 
furnished  to  us  by  the  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  and  a  few 
of  them  are  actual  reproductions  of  the  museum  maps.  Our  photo- 
graphs have  been  selected  from  various  sources,  but  the  larger 
number  have  been  purchased  from  William  H.  Rau,  of  Philadelphia. 
Through  the  kindness  of  Commander  Webster  we  have  obtained  per- 
mission to  use  the  photographs  reproduced  in  Figures  406,  432,  433, 
and  434;  and  Figures  278,  289,  290,  447,  469,  473,  and  477  are 
borrowed  from  Ratzel's  "History  of  Mankind.'*  A  number  of 
European  views  were  loaned  by  Dr.  Heinrich  Ries,  of  Cornell 
University,  and  the  wash  drawings  were  made  by  Mr.  C.  W. 
Furlong,  also  of  Cornell. 

We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Philip  Emerson,  of  the  Cobbet  School, 
Lynn,  Massachusetts,  for  his  suggestive  criticism  of  the  manuscript 
and  for  further  aid  in  the  preparation  of  the  section  on  Australia. 
Valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  statistical  tables  has 
been  rendered  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Whitbeck,  of  Cornell  University. 
While  we  have  drawn  upon  many  sources  for  the  information  upon 
which  the  text  in  this  volume  is  based,  the  extensive  use  that  has 
been  made  of  Mill's  "  International  Geography "  and  the  "  States- 
man's Yearbook" — books  which  every  geography  teacher  should 
have  at  hand  —  calls  for  special  acknowledgment. 

The  State  Text-book  Committee  is  indebted  to  the  following  for 
assistance  in  furnishing  information  and  photographs:  The  Postal 
Telegraph  Cable  Co.,  California  Promotion  Committee,  Figs.  101, 
170,  525,  528,  549,  618;  Southern  Pacific  Co.,  A,  B,  C,  D,  N,  P,  R, 
S,  W,  6,  125  A,  125  B,  133,  514,  515,  536,  538,  540,  543,  544,  546, 
552,  555,  556,  557,  558,  564,  567,  569,  570,  571,  572,  573,  585,  601, 
604,  607,  619,  623-3,  629-3;  Salt  Lake  R.  R.,  144;  Northern  Pacific 
Ry.,  151,  K  ;  Santa  Fe  Ry.,  L;  Pacific  Const  S.  S.  Co.,  14,  F,  177,  T, 
272 ;  Pillsbury  Picture  Co.,  J,  M,  O,  17,  158,  160  ;  Pacific  Tank  Co., 
137;  Holt  Co.,  141;  Union  Iron  Works,  148,535;  South  Africa  British 


xM  FMXFAOM 

Co.,  BB,  CC,  EE;  Edison  Electric  Co.,  550;  Putnam  and  Valen-^ 
tine,  565;  Petaluma  Incubator  Co.,  581;  F.  A.  Shipley  Co.,  689; 
Turrill  &  Miller,  595,  610,  620,  625-6;  Sylmar  Olive  Association, 
605;  James  &  Dorman,  615;  Standard  Oil  Co.,  616;  Port  Costa 
Milling  Co.,  617;  Chambers  of  Commerce  of:  Siskiyou  County, 
136 ;  Los  Angeles,  574  ;  Petaluma,  580  ;  Napa,  603  ;  Sacramento, 
602 ;  King's  County  Promotion  Association,  545 ;  Sacramento  Val- 
ley Development  Association,  621;  Booker  T.  Washington,  96; 
Pres.  Chicago  University,  124  A ;  Pres.  Northwestern  University, 
124  B;  Supt.  J.  G.  O'Neill,  138;  J.  B.  Brown,  139,  140,  143; 
Supt.  Duncan  Mackinnon,  142 ;  Job  Wood,  Jr.,  146 ;  Supt.  C.  L. 
McLane,  145,  626-4  ;  Supt.  Mark  Keppel,  153, 154 ;  Supt.  James  A. 
Barr,  577,  625-4  ;  Supt.  De  Witt  Montgomery,  600,  611 ;  Supt.  Mrs. 
Minnie  Abrams,  613;  Supt.  J.  W.  McClymonds,  625-5;  J.  H. 
Francis,  625-2;  Supt.  H.  A.  Adrian,  626-1;  Le  Roy  Smith,  627; 
Warring  Wilkinson,  628 ;  Pres.  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  629-1 ; 
Pres.  David  Starr  Jordan,  629-2;  T.  J.  Phillips,  630-3;  Supt.  A. 
L.  Hamilton,  575;  Congressman  S.  C.  Smith,  630-1 ;  W.  H.  Weeks, 
625-1;  S.  C.  Schofield,  625-3;  Mrs.  F.  J.  Sifford,  622;  M.  E. 
Dittmar,  614 ;  C.  C.  Teague,  598,  599 ;  George  P.  Robinson,  596 ; 
John  Whicher,  593 ;  Hemet  Land  and  Water  Co.,  592 ;  J.  A.  Driffill, 
590;  J.  C.  Brewster,  586,  587,  606;  F.  H.  Atwater,  582;  L.  E. 
Chenoweth,  578 ;  C.  W.  Nelson,  559,  560 ;  George  A.  Bald,  554 ;  A. 
M.  Seymour,  551 ;  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard,  533 ;  A.  H.  Slade,  534, 
624;  H.  R.  Fitch,  522,  529,  626-2,  626-3;  George  E.Knox,  520; 
P.  H.  Kerrigan,  513;  Charles  L.  Owens,  273,  FF,^  623-1,  630-2; 
State  Forester  Lull,  152,  608,  609  ;  Lewis  E.  Aubury,  612,  516  ;  Lou 
G.  Hare,  531;  Supt.  D.  L.  Thornbury,  532;  Leroy  Anderson,  579; 
Mrs.  H.  M.  Sitton,  539 ;  Oakland  Chamber  of  Commerce,  cuts  opposite 
page  557. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 
PART  I.     NORTH  AMERICA 

PAOB 

Section  I.     Physiography  of  North  America  ....  .         .        1 

The  Growth  op  the  Continent,  1.  The  Coal  Period,  2.  The  Moun- 
tains AND  Plateaus,  4.  Volcanoes,  6.  The  Trough  between  the 
Two  Mountain  Systems,  9.  The  Great  Ice  Age,  12.  The  Coast 
Line,  16.     Size,  Shape,  and  Position,  17.     Summary,  18. 

Section  II.     Plants,  Animals,  and  Peoples 20 

Plants  of  the  North,  20.  Animals  of  the  North,  21.  Plants  and 
Animals  in  Western  North  America,  22.  Plants  and  Animals  op 
the  Tropical  Zone,  25.  Plants  and  Animals  in  the  Temperate  Part 
of  North  America,  26.  Peoples.  Eskimos,  30.  Indians,  30.  The 
Spaniards,  32.  The  French,  33.  The  English,  34.  Westward 
Migration,  36.     Slavery,  36.     Immigrants  to  America,  37. 

Section  III.     Latitude,  Longitude,  and  Standard  Time         ....       39 
Latitude  and  Longitude.     Need  of  a  Means  for  locating  Places,  39. 
The    Streets   of  a   City,   39.      Distance   North  and    South  of   the 
Equator   (Latitude),  40.     East  and  West  Distances  on  the  Earth 
(Longitude),  41.     Standard  Time,  44. 

Section  IV.     United  States 47 

Section  V.     New  England 49 

Physiography  and  Climate,  49.  The  Forests.  Cutting  the  Timber,  60. 
Floating  the  Logs  to  the  Mills,  51.  Sawmills  and  Paper  Mills,  52. 
The  Rocks.  Granite,  53.  Marble,  54.  Slate,  55.  Fishing.  Mack- 
erel, 55.  Halibut  and  Codfish,  56.  Other  Ocean  Foods,  57.  Agri- 
culture, 57.  Manufacturing.  Cotton  Manufacturing,  60.  Wool 
Manufacturing,  60.  Leather  Manufacturing,  61.  Metal  Manufac- 
turing, 61.  Largest  Cities  and  Chief  Shipping  Routes.  The  Large 
Cities,  62.     Boston  and  Vicinity,  62.     Summer  Resorts,  M. 

Section  VI.     Middle  Atlantic  States 67 

Physiography,  67.  Climate,  71.  Forests,  72.  Fish  and  Oysters,  72. 
Agriculture.  Dairying,  73.  Tobacco,  74.  Fruits  and  Vegetables, 
74.  Mining.  Salt,  76.  Coal,  76.  Oil  and  Gas,  78.  Iron  Ore,  79. 
Iron  and  Iron  Goods,  80.  Glass,  Pottery,  Bricks,  etc.,  88.  Largest 
Cities  and  Chief  Shipping  Routes.  Location  of  New  York  City,  83. 
Erie  Cj»nal,  84.  Railways  of  New  York,  85.  New  York  City,  87. 
Philadelphia  and  its  Chief  Shipping  Routes,  92.  Baltimore,  93. 
District  of  Columbia,  94.     Richmond  and  Norfolk,  94. 

zifi 


xiv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAOB 

Section  VII.     Southern  States 98 

Physiography,  98.  Climate,  99.  Forests,  100.  Agriculture.  Cotton, 
102.    KiCE,  104.    Sugar  Cane  and  Sugar,  104.   Fruits,  106.    Other  Crops, 

107.  Grazing,  107.     Mineral  Products.     Coal  and  Iron,  108.     Stone, 

108.  Gold  and  Precious  Stones,  108.  Phosphates,  108.  Salt  and  Oil, 
108.  Manufacturing,  108.  Leading  Cities  and  Shipping  Routes. 
New  Orleans,  111.  Memphis  and  Atlanta,  113.  Nashville,  113. 
Texas  Cities,  114.     Oklahoma,  114. 

Section  VIII.     Central  States US 

Physiography  and  Climate,  119.  Settlement  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  119.  Agriculture.  A  Farm  in  Central  Ohio,  121.  Fruits, 
122.  Fine  Stock  in  Kentucky,  123.  Caverns,  123.  Corn,  124. 
Wheat,  125.  Other  Grains,  126.  Cattle  Ranching,  126.  Lumber- 
ing, 130.  Mineral  Products.  Building  Stone,  131.  Petroleum 
AND  Natural  Gas,  132.  Coal,  132.  Iron  Ore,  132.  Copper,  134. 
Lead,  Zinc,  etc.,  135.  Clays,  135.  Principal  Cities  and  Shipping 
Routes,  136.  The  Lake  Cities.  Duluth  and  Superior,  136.  Chi- 
cago, 137.  Stock  Yards  of  Chicago,  137.  Manufacturing  in  Chicago, 
139.  Other  Facts  about  Chicago,  139.  Other  Cities  along  the 
Lakes,  139.  The  River  Cities.  Cities  along  the  Mississippi,  140. 
Cities  along  the  Missouri,  142.     Cities  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  143. 

Section  IX.     The  Western  States 147 

Early  Settlements,  147.  Physiography,  149.  Climate,  150.  Mineral 
Products,  152.  Lumbering,  155.  Agriculture,  157.  Ranching,  161. 
Territories,  163.  Scenery.  The  Yellowstone  Park,  164.  Colo- 
rado Canyon,  165.  Yosemite  Valley,  169.  The  Cities.  Cities  in 
THE  Interior,  169.     Cities  on  the  Pacific  Slope,  170. 

Section  X.  Territories  and  Dependencies  of  the  United  States  .  .  177 
Alaska.  Climate  and  Physiography,  177.  Fishing,  178.  Whaling, 
178.  Sealing,  178.  Mining,  179.  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  Physiog- 
raphy AND  Climate,  180.  Forests  and  Minerals,  181.  Agriculture, 
181.  The  Inhabitants,  182.  Cities,  182.  The  Haw^aiian  Islands. 
The  Volcanoes,  184.  Climate,  184.  Industries,  185,  The  Hawaiian 
Islands  as  a  Coaling  Station,  185.  Guam  and  Samoa,  186.  The 
Philippine  Islands.  Physiography,  186.  Climate,  187.  Resources 
AND  Industries,  188.     Cities,  190. 

Section  XI.     Countries  North  of  the  United  States 192 

Canada  and  Newfoundland.  History,  192.  Physiography  and  Cli- 
mate, 193.  Lumbering,  194.  Fishing,  195.  Sealing,  196.  Agricul- 
ture AND  Ranching,  197.  Mining,  199.  Trade  Routes  and  Cities, 
199.     Islands  North  of  North  America.  202. 

Section  XII.     Countries  South  of  the  United  States 206 

Mexico.  Physiography  and  Climate,  206.  History,  207.  Agricul- 
ture and  Ranching,  208.  Southern  Mexico,  210.  The  Mines,  210. 
The  Cities,  211.  Central  America.  The  Republics,  212.  The  Panama 
Canal,  214.  The  West  Indies.  Jamaica,  215.  Haiti,  215.  Lesser 
Aktillss,  215.     Thk  Bahamas,  216.     The  Bermudas,  217. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  rV 

PA6X 

Section  XIII.     Review  of  North  America 219 

Physical  Geography,  219.  Population,  220.  City  and  Country,  221. 
Country,  222.  Cities,  226.  Dependence  op  Different  Sections  upon 
One  Another,  231.  Relation  to  our  Territories  and  Dependencies, 
231.  Other  Countries  of  North  America,  232.  Our  Relation  to 
Other  Countries,  232.  Transportation  Routes,  233.  Influence 
OF  Steam  and  Electricity,  234.  Influence  of  Modern  Inventions  on 
Mode  of  Life,  234.  Influence  of  our  Surroundings  on  Education 
AND  Government,  235. 


PAET   II.     GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Section  I.     The  Earth's  Movements 239 

Form  and  Size,  239.  Daily  Motion,  239.  Yearly  Motion,  240.  The 
Attraction  op  Gravitation,  241.  Length  of  Day  and  Night,  242. 
The  Zones,  242. 

Section  II.     Winds  and  Rain      .  244 

"Winds.  Review,  244.  Effect  op  a  Stove,  244.  Winds  of  the  Earth, 
245.  Effect  of  Rotation,  246.  Wind  Belts,  246.  Belt  of  Calms 
AND  Belts  of  Horse  Latitudes,  247.  Effect  of  Revolution,  248. 
Rain.  Causes  for  Rain,  248.  Rain  Belts  in  North  America,  251. 
Other  Rainy  and  Arid  Regions  of  Northern  Hemisphere,  252.  South 
OF  the  Equator,  253.  Belt  of  Calms,  253.  Migration  of  Rain  Belts, 
254.  Eastern  United  States  and  Canada,  254.  Weather  Maps,  258. 
Cyclonic  Storms  in  Europe,  258.  Sea  and  Land  Breezes  j  Mon- 
soons, 259. 

Section  III.  Ocean  Movements  and  Distribution  of  Temperature  .  .  262 
Wind  Waves,  262.  Tides.  What  the  Tides  Are,  262.  Height  of 
THE  Tidal  Wave,  262.  Ocean  Currents.  Cause  of  Ocean  Currents, 
263.  The  North  Atlantic  Eddy,  263.  The  Gulf  Stream,  264.  The 
Labrador  Current,  265.  The  Currents  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean, 
266.  Eddies  of  the  Southern  Oceans,  266.  Effects  of  Ocean  Cur- 
rents IN  North  America  :  Review,  266.  Effects  on  Other  Regions, 
268.    Distribution  of  Temperature,  268. 

Section  IV.     Peoples 276 

Divisions  of  Mankind,  276.  Distribution  of  Races,  278.  Distribution 
oi-  Religion,  278. 


PART   III.     SOUTH  AMERICA 

Physiography,  285.  Climate,  287.  Plant  and  Animal  Life,  288.  The 
People,  290.  Brazil.  Physiography  and  Climate,  292.  The  Tropi- 
cal Forest,  294.  Products  of  the  Forest,  294.  Rubber,  295.  Coffef 
Raising,  295.  Other  Industries  in  Brazil,  296.  Cities,  296.  Argentina. 
Physiography  and  Climate,  296.  Cattle  Raising,  297.  Farming,  297. 
Mamufaoturino    and    Commerce,   298.      Cities,   298.      Uruguay  and 


xri  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAOV 

Paraguay.  Uruguay,  299.  Paraguay,  300.  The  Guianaa  and  Vene- 
zuela. The  Guianas,  300.  Venezuela,  301.  Tropical  Andean  Coun- 
tries. Points  of  Resemblance,  302.  Panama,  304.  Colombia,  304. 
Ecuador,  306.  Peru,  306.  Bolivia,  308.  Chile.  Physiography  and 
Climate,  309.  Mineral  Wealth,  310.  Agriculture,  Manufacturing, 
AND  General  Development,  310.  Cities,  311.  Islands  near  the 
Continent,  311. 


PART  IV.    EUROPE 

Section  I.     Physiography,  Climate,  and  People 817 

Physiography.  Highlands  and  Lowlands,  317.  Coal  Beds,  319.  The 
Great  Ice  Sheet,  319.  The  Coast  Line,  319.  Climate.  Influence 
of  Latitude,  320.  Resemblance  to  Western  North  America,  321. 
Influence  of  Cyclonic  Storms,  321.  Effect  of  Mountain  Ranges, 
322.  Inland  Seas,  323.  People,  323.  Influence  of  the  Discovert; 
OF  America,  324. 

Section  II.     The  British  Isles 326 

Position,  Size,  and  Importance,  326.  Inhabitants,  326.  Physiography 
AND  Climate,  327.  Agriculture,  328.  Fishing,  329.  Mining,  330. 
Reasons  for  Development  of  Manufacturing,  331.  Woolen  and 
Cotton  Manufactures,  333.  Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing,  333. 
Ireland,  334.  Location  of  Principal  Cities,  336.  London,  337. 
Other  English  Cities,  340.  Cities  of  Scotland,  341.  Cities  of 
Ireland,  342.  Fuller  Reasons  for  the  Greatness  of  the  British 
Empire,  342.     Government,  344. 

Section  III.     The  Netherlands  and  Belgium 846 

The  Netherlands  (Holland).  Physiography,  346.  People  and  Gov- 
ernment, 347.  Agriculture,  347.  Manufacturing,  348.  Commerce, 
349.  Colonies,  349.  Cities,  350.  Belgium.  Physiography,  360. 
People  and  Government,  351.  Agriculture,  352.  Mining  and 
Manufacturing,  352.     Commerce,  353.     Cities,  354. 

Section  IV.     France    ...  355 

People  and  Government,  355.  Physiography  and  Climate,  355.  Agri- 
culture, 356.  Minerals,  367.  Manufacturing,  357.  Wool  and 
Cotton  Manufactures,  357.  Silk  Manufacturing,  358.  Other 
Manufactures,  359.  Paris,  360.  (Location^  360  ;  Paris  as  an  Art 
Center,  361 ;  Manufactures  of  Paris,  362 ;  Commerce  of  Paris,  362.) 
Other  Cities,  362.     Commerce  of  France,  362.     Colonies,  363. 

Section  V.     Spain  and  Portugal 864 

People  and  Government,  364.  Physiography  and  Climate,  365.  Agri- 
culture AND  Grazing,  366.  Mining,  367.  Manufacturing,  367. 
Principal  Cities  of  Spain,  367.  Colonies  of  Spain,  869.  Principal 
Cities  and  Colonies  of  Portugal,  369. 

Section  VI.     Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 878 

People,  378.    Physiography  and  Climate,  878.    Aorioultural  Distbiots, 


FABLE  OF  CON  TEN  1&  XVM 

FAOB 

374.  Industries  and  Cities  of  Norway,  376.  Scenery  on  thb  West- 
ern Coast,  377.  Industries  and  Cities  of  Sweden,  378.  Industries 
AND  Cities  of  Denmark,  379.     Colonies  of  Denmark,  380, 

Section  VII.     Russia 382 

Size  and  Position,  382.  Physiography,  382.  Climate,  383.  People 
AND  Government,  384.  Lumbering,  386.  Farming  and  Grazing,  386. 
Mineral  Wealth,  386.  Manufacturing,  386.  Principal  Cities  and 
their  Commerce.  Moscow  and  Nijni  Novgorod,  387.  St.  Peters- 
burg, 388.     Odessa,  388.     Warsaw  and  Lodz,  388. 

Section  VIII.     German  Empire 390 

Extent  and  Position,  390.  People  and  Government,  390.  Defense, 
392.  Physiography,  393.  Climate,  394.  Forests,  396.  Agriculture 
AND  Grazing,  395.  Mining,  396.  Manufacturing,  396.  Germany's 
Rapid  Advance,  397.  Colonies  and  Emigrants,  398.  Principal 
Cities  and  their  Commerce.  Berlin,  399.  Interior  Cities  near 
Berlin,  400.     Seaports,  401.     Cities  along  the  Rhine,  401. 

Section  IX.     Switzerland  ...  405 

Physiography  and  Climate,  405.  People  and  Government,  406.  Farm- 
ing, 407.  Manufacturing,  407.  Leading  Cities,  407.  Scenery  and 
Tourists,  409. 

Section  X.     Italy 411 

Extent  and  Position,  411.  People  and  Government,  411.  Physiog- 
raphy AND  Climate,  412.  Agriculture,  412.  Mining  and  Fishing, 
413.  Manufacturing,  414.  Principal  Cities,  414.  {Naples  and 
Vicinity,  414  ;  Ancient  and  Modern  Borne,  416 ;  Other  Italian  Cities, 
417.) 

Section  XI.     Austria-Hungary 421 

Physiography  and  Climate,  421.  People  and  Government,  422.  Natu- 
ral Resources,  424.  Manufacturing  and  Commerce,  425.  Principal 
Cities,  426.     Small  Countries,  426. 

Section  XII.     The  Balkan  Peninsula .    428 

Physiography  and  Climate,  428.  People,  429.  Montenegro,  429.  Ser- 
via,  429.  roumania  and  bulgaria,  430.  turkey  in  europb,  431. 
Greece,  432.     Islands  near  Greece,  434. 


PART  V.     ASIA,   AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA  AND  ISLAND 

GROUPS 

Section  I.     Asia 439 

Size  and  Position,  439.  Physiography  and  Climate,  439.  Plants  and 
Animals,  441.  People,  443.  Turkish  or  Ottoman  Empire,  444. 
{Conditions in  the  Empire,  444  ;  The  Holy  Land,  445  ;  Mesopotamia,  446.) 
Arabia,  447.  Persia,  448.  Afghanistan,  449.  Russia  in  Asia,  449. 
India,  451.  {Physiography  and  Climate,  451  ;  Farming,  462  ;  Forests 
and  Wild  Animals^  463 ;    Mining  and  ManvJ'acturing^  468 ;    Famin— 


XVllI  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAG» 

and  Flagues,  454 ;  Government,  456  ;  Baluchistan  and  Burma,  456 ;  Base 
of  Himalayas,  456;  Principal  Cities,  467.)  Ceylon,  468.  Indo-China 
AND  THE  Malay  Peninsula,  468.  (Siam,  468  ;  French  Indo-China,  459; 
Straits  Settlements,  4^^^.)  Chinese  Empire,  460.  {Area  and  Population, 
460 ;  Climate,  460 ;  People  and  Civilization,  462 ;  National  Besources, 
463;  Government,  ^64: ;  Principal  Cities,  466.)  Korea,  466.  Japan,  466. 
{Physiography  and  Climate,  466 ;  People  and  Government,  467 ;  Becent 
Advance,  468;  Besources,  469;  Principal  Cities,  469.) 

Section  IL     Africa 472 

Physiography,  472.  Climate,  476.  Plants  and  Animals,  477.  The 
People,  478.  Exploration  and  Settlement,  478.  Northern  Africa. 
Political  Divisions,  479.  The  Sahara,  480.  Egypt  and  the  Neigh- 
boring British  Territory,  481.  {The  Nile,  481 ;  Agriculture,  484 ; 
The  People,  484  ;  Suez  Canal,  486  ;  Cities,  486.)  The  Barbary  States, 
487.  Southern  Africa.  Comparison  with  Northern  Africa,  488.  The 
People,  488.  Agriculture  and  Grazing,  490.  Mineral  Wealth,  491. 
Commerce  and  Cities,  492.  Central  Africa.  The  Rivers,  493.  The 
People,  493.  Divisions  of  Central  Africa,  495.  Need  of  Railways, 
497.     Islands  near  Africa,  498. 

Section  III.     Australia  and  Island  Groups  ...  .        .     600 

Australia.  Physiography,  500.  Climate,  501.  Plants,  502.  History, 
502.  Sheep  Raising,  504.  Animal  Products,  506.  Agriculture,  606. 
Mining,  606.  Manufacturing,  606.  Cities,  506.  Island  Groups.  New 
Zealand,  608.     The  East  Indies,  609.     Islands  of  the  Pacific,  612. 

The  United  States  compared  with  Other  Countries 615 

Area  and  Population,  616.  Leading  Raw  Products,  616.  Manufac- 
turing and  Commerce,  620.  Dependence  upon  Other  Nations,  622. 
Exports  and  Imports,  624.  Reasons  for  the  Rank  of  the  United 
States,  526. 

Index 627 

PAKT  VI.     CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 

Aside  to  Teacher,  645.  Note  to  Teacher,  546.  Lists  of  References, 
548.  General  View  of  State,  561.  Coast  Region,  664.  Great 
Valley  Region,  565.  Sierran  Region,  570.  Southern  California, 
582.  Dairying,  589.  Agriculture,  692.  Fruit  Growing,  699.  For- 
ests AND  Lumber,  608.  Mineral  Products,  612.  Manufacturing, 
618.  Transportation,  620.  Earthquakes,  623.  History,  624.  Edu- 
cation, 627.  Government,  632.  Cities,  634.  Last  of  All,  636.  Gen- 
eral Questions,  636.  Summary  of  Values,  638.  Population  of 
California,  639.  Height  of  Mountains,  640.  Counties  of  Califor- 
nia, 641.     Geographical  Names,  642. 

Indbx 646 

Appendix.  Tables  op  Area,  Population,  bto c    .    1 


LIST   OF  MAPS 
COLORED  POLITICAL  MAPS 

PIGUnK 

42.  North  America. 
44.     United  States. 
47.    New  England. 

62.  Middle  Atlantic  States. 
87.    Southern  States. 

104.  Central  States. 

131.  Western  States. 

157.  Alaska. 

163.  West  Indies,  with  Map  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

172.  United  States  Dependencies  in  the  Pacific. 

178.  Dominion  of  Canada  and  New^foundland. 

194.  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

281.  South  America. 

313.  The  British  Isles. 

337.  Western  Europe, 

363.  Europe. 

375.  Central  Europe. 

403.  Asia. 

416.  Holy  Land. 

443.  Africa. 

467.  Australia. 

611.  Mercator  Chart  of  World. 

512.  The  Hemispheres. 

617.  California.     Northern  Section. 

518.  California.     Southern  Section. 

526.  San  Francisco  and  Vicinity. 

537.  Los  Angeles,  San  Diego,  Santa  Barbara  and  Vicinity. 

RELIEF  MAPS 

9.  The  Continental  Ice  Sheet. 

10.  North  America. 

43.  Physiographic  Map  of  the  United  States  (with  names). 
46.  United  States. 

46.  New  England. 

63.  Middle  Atlantic  States 
86.   Southern  States. 

ziz 


XX  LIST  OF  MAJfS 

riGTJRS 

103.  Central  States 

130.  Western  States. 

282.  South  America, 

304.  Europe. 

402.  Asia. 

444.  Africa. 

468.  Australia. 

«16.  California. 


CITY  MAPS 

48.  Boston  and  Vicinity. 

77.  Buffalo  and  Vicinity. 

81.  New  York  City  and  Vicinity. 

82.  Baltimore  and  Washington. 

88.  New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Birmingham,  and  Atlanta. 

105.  Chicago  and  Great  Lakes. 

132.  San  Francisco,  Portland,  Tacoma,  and  Seattle. 

179.  Montreal  and  Quebec. 

322.  London  and  Liverpool. 

338.  Paris  and  its  Vicinity. 

374.  Berlin  and  its  Vicinity. 

398.  Constantinople  and  its  Vicinity. 

45L  The  Lower  Nile. 


MAPS   ILLUSTRATING  CLIMATE 

247.  Shifting  of  Wind  and  Rain  Belts. 

248.  Shifting  of  Wind  and  Kain  Belts. 

249.  Wind  Belts  of  the  Earth. 

250.  Rainfall  of  the  World. 

251.  Winds  and  Rainfall  of  South  America. 

252.  Winds  and  Rainfall  of  Western  United  States. 

253.  Winds  and  Rainfall  of  Africa. 

254.  Winds  and  Rainfall  of  Australia. 

255.  Summer  Winds  and  Rainfall  in  Southern  Hemisphere. 

256.  Winter  Winds  and  Rainfall  in  Southern  Hemisphere. 

259.  Weather  Map. 

260.  Weather  Map. 

261.  Cyclonic  Storm  in  Europe. 

262.  Summer  Monsoons,  India. 

263.  Winter  Monsoons,  India. 

264.  Currents  of  the  North  Atlantic. 

267.  Ocean  Currents  of  the  World. 

268.  Isothermal  Chart  of  the  World  for  July. 

269.  Isothermal  Chart  of  the  World  for  January. 

270.  Isothermal  Chart  of  the  United  States  for  January 

271.  Isothermal  Chart  of  the  United  States  for  July. 


LIBT  OF  MAFB  xxi 

310.  Rainfall  of  Europe. 

314.  Rainfall  Map  of  the  British  Isles. 

317.  Coal  Fields  of  Great  Britain. 

329.  The  Netherlands  (showing  relation  to  sea  level). 

445.  Vegetation  Zones  of  Africa. 
653.  Rainfall  in  California. 

PRODUCT  MAPS 

209.  Principal  Corn-raising  Region  of  the  United  States. 

211.  Principal  Wheat-raising  Region  of  the  United  States. 

213.  Principal  Cotton-raising  Region  of  the  United  States. 

216.  Principal  Tobacco-raising  Region  of  the  United  States. 

220.  Coal  Fields  of  the  United  States. 

223.  Iron,  Copper,  Oil,  and  Gas-producing  Districts  of  the  United  States. 

224.  Principal  Gold  and  Silver  Regions  of  the  United  States. 
231  Principal  Forest  Regions  of  the  United  States. 

232.  Fishing  Grounds  near  North  America. 

234.  Manufacturing  Regions  of  the  United  States. 

305.  Coal  Fields  of  Europe. 

484.  World  Map  for  Corn. 

485.  World  Map  for  Wheat. 
487.  World  Map  for  Cotton. 
489.  World  Map  for  Sheep. 
491.  World  Map  for  Coal. 
493.  World  Map  for  Iron. 
495.  World  Map  for  Silver. 
497.  World  Map  for  Gold. 

499.  Manufacturing  Districts  of  the  World. 

504.  World  Map  for  Coffee. 

506.  World  Map  for  Cane  and  Beet  Sugar. 

509.  World  Map  for  Rice. 

553.  National  Forests  in  California, 

612.  Mineral  Map  of  California. 

DENSITY   OF  POPULATION  MAPS 

39.  North  America. 

207.  United  States. 

208.  United  States  (center  of  population). 
288.  South  America. 

303.  Europe. 

446.  Africa. 
472.  Australia. 

482.  Density  of  Population  Comparison  (diagram). 

OTHER  MAPS 

30.  Political  Map  of  North  America  in  1760. 

32.  Settle^  Part  of  the  United  States.  1790. 


XXll 


LIST  OF  MAPS 


riQxrax 

38.  Standard  Time  Belts  of  United  States. 

59.  Map  showing  the  Fall  Line. 

60.  The  Erie  Canal. 

227.  Eailroads  of  the  United  States. 

237.  Eailroads  of  Eastern  United  States. 

238.  Navigable  Rivers  of  the  United  States. 
240.  Growth  of  the  United  States. 

244.  Map  of  the  Zones, 

275.  Races  of  Mankind. 

277.  Distribution  of  Religions. 

306.  Ice  Sheet  of  Europe. 

312.  The  British  Empire. 

354.  Colonies  of  United  States,  Germany,  France,  and  the  Netherlands. 

510.  Transportation  Routes  and  Telegraph  Lines. 

516.  Comparative  Size  of  California. 

531.  Monterey  Bay  and  Vicinity. 

632.  Humboldt  Bay  and  Vicinity. 


Fig.  B. 
The  breaking  waves  dash  high  ..."  at  Point  Conception,  California. 


Fia.  C. 
El  Capltan,  Tosemite  Valley. 


Fig.  D. 
**  First  Americans."    Type  Of  North  American  Indian. 


Paet  I 
NORTH  AMERICA 

I.     PHYSIOGRAPHY   OF   NORTH   AMERICA 

The  Growth  of  the  Continent.  —  There  are  over  one  hundred 
Tiiillion  persons  in  North  America  at  the  present  time,  although 
a  century  ago  there  were  scarcely  one  tenth  of  that  number.  This 
wonderful  growth  has  been  largely  due  to  the  useful  and  valuable 
mineral  products  of  the  earth;  to  the  soil  and  climate  which  have 
allowed  many  different  kinds  of  plants  and  animals  to  thrive  ;  and 
to  the  rivers,  waterfalls,  lakes,  and  harbors  which  have  made  manu- 
facturing and  shipping  easy. 

As  it  takes  time  to  build  a  house,  and  to  prepare  the  boards  from 
trees,  the  nails  from  iron  ore,  and  the  bricks  from  clay,  so  it  takes 
time  for  the  formation  of  minerals  and  rocks  and  for  the  building  of  a 
continent.     In  fact,  millions  of  years  have  been  required  for  that  work. 

The  story,  telling  how  North  America  was  made,  is  a  very  inter- 
esting one.  It  has  been  discovered  by  a  careful  study  of  the  rocks  ; 
and  although  there  are  many  questions  that  no  man  is  yet  able  to 
answer,  we  are  prepared  to  tell  a  part  of  the  story. 

At  one  time  the  earth  was  probably  a  white-hot  sphere  like  the 
sun ;  but  in  time  the  outside  cooled  to  a  crust  of  solid  rock.  The 
interior,  still  heated,  continued  to  shrink  and  grow  smaller,  as  most 
substances  do  when  cooling.  This  caused  the  solid  crust  to  settle 
and  wrinkle,  much  as  the  skin  of  an  apple  does  when  the  fruit  is  dry- 
ing. Water  collecting  in  the  depressions  formed  the  oceans,  while 
between  them,  where  the  elevation  of  the  earth's  crust  was  greatest, 
rocks  appeared  above  the  sea  level.  Thus  North  America  and  the 
other  continents  were  born. 

In  its  babyhood,  although  the  center  of  the  continent  was  still 
a  broad  sea,  the  eastern  and  western  parts  doubtless  resembled  the 
West  Indies  of  to-day,  which  you  will  find  on  the  map  of  North 
America  (Fig.  42,  following  p.  48).  Those  islands  are  the  highest 
parts  of  a  mountain  chain.     They  seem  to  be  separated  only  because 


2 


WOETM  AMEBIC  A 


the  ridges  upon  which  they  rest  do  not  rise  high  enough  to  reach 
above  the  water  (Fig.  1). 

In  early  times  North  America  consisted  of  chains  of  islands. 
Finally,  the  land  rose  higher,  forming  one  mountain  range  in  the 


Fig.  1. 
The  West  Indian  region  as  it  would  appear  if  the  ocean  water  were  removed. 

East,  and  other  ranges  in  the  West.     Then  the  plains  between  the 
mountains  slowly  emerged  from  the  ocean. 

The  Coal  Period.  —  Ages  after  the  beginning,  a  period  arrived 
when  in  the  northern  part  of  North 
America  it  was  much  warmer  than 
now,  and  the  rains  were  far  heavier. 
During  that  period  our  coal  was  made 
out  of  plants.  Beneath  the  coal  beds, 
in  the  rock  which  was  once  soil,  roots 
of  plants  may  still  be  seen,  while  stems 
of  plants,  and  even  trunks  of  trees 
changed  to  coal,  reach  up  into  the 
coal  beds.  Also  a  careful  examina- 
tion with  the  microscope,  or  at  times 
even  with  the  nake.d  eye,  shows  that 
coal   is   composed   of    bits   of   plants 


Rock  containing  a  fossil  fern  which 
grew  in  the  swamps  of  the  coal 
period. 


PHT8I0GRAPHT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  3. 

The  way  the  coal  swamps  appeared,  so  far  as  we  can 
tell  from  the  fossils  which  have  been  preserved. 


closely  pressed  together.     Frequently  the  full  form  of  a  fern  or  leaf 

may  be  seen  (Fig.  2). 

As  the  crust  of  the  earth  shrinks  and  wrinkles,  the  land  is  raised 

and  lowered.     Even  now  it  is  slowly  moving  in  some  places,  and  was 

doing  the  same  during  the  coal  period.     At  that  time  some  of  the  old 

sea  bottom  was  raised  above  the  water,  forming  extensive  plains  in 

the  eastern  part  of  North 

America.      Plants   had 

long  been  growing;  and 

these  plains  were  so 

low  and  level  that  vast 

swamps  were  produced 

(Fig.  3),  on  which  the 

vegetation  was   ex- 
tremely  rank,   like    a 

tropical  jungle.     After 

the   swamp  plants  had 

grown  for  hundreds  of 

years,  the  plains   sank 

beneath  the  sea,  and  the 

vegetation  became  covered  with  layers  of  sand,  gravel,  and  mud, 

which  have  since  hardened  into  rock. 

After  another  long  period  the  sea  bottom  emerged  once  more,  and 

the  dense  swamp  vegetation  returned;  but  this  time  the  plants  grew 

with  their  roots  in  the  ocean  mud  which  had  buried  the  earlier 

swamp.     After   many  more  years  the  plains  again  sank,  and  the 

swamp  vegetation  was  buried  as  before.     This  rising  and  sinking  of 

the  land  continued  for 
ages,  one  set  of  layers  of 
rock,  soil,  and  vegetation 
being  covered  up  by 
another,  until  many  such 
sets  were  formed. 


Though  the  swamps  were, 
no  doubt,  somewhat  similar  to 
those  which  may  now  be  seen 
in  many  places,  the  vegeta- 
tion grew  far  more  thickly, 
perhaps  even  more  thickly 
than   in  the   jungles    of 


Fig.  4. 

A  view  in  the  Dismal  Swamp  of  Virginia.    Compare 
Fig.  3  with  this  to  see  how  different  the  trees  are. 


NORTH  AMERICA 


India  or  the  everglades  of  Florida.  Also  the  plants  were  so  different  from 
those  of  the  present  (Fig.  4),  that  not  a  single  species  now  living  grew  in 
the  coal  swamps. 

When  the  plants  died,  they  fell  into  the  water,  making  a  woody  mat- 
ting which  did  not  fully  decay,  because  the  water  prevented  air  from 
reaching  it.  If  it  had  been  dug  up  and  dried,  it  might  have  made  good 
fuel.  Indeed,  it  is  now  the  custom  in  Ireland,  Norway,  and  some  other 
cool,  moist  lands  to  dig  such  matter  out  of  the  swamps  and  dry  it,  forming 
peat,  a  fuel  used  for  cooking  and  heating. 

Some  of  the  poorer  coals  of  the  West,  known  as  lignite,  are  little  more 
than  peat  beds  partly  changed  to  mineral  coal.  Other  coal,  called  anthra- 
cite, found  especially  in  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  has  been  changed 
so  greatly  that  it  is  as  hard  as  some  rocks,  and  is  known  as  hard  coal. 
But  most  of  the  coal  that  is  mined,  —  as  that  of  western  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Central  States,  — although  quite  like  a  mineral,  and  harder  than 
lignite,  is  not  so  hard  as  anthracite.    This  is  called  soft  or  bituminous  coal. 

The  woody  matting  that  gathered  in  some  of  the  swamps  grew 
to  be  scores  of  feet  in  thickneSs;  but,  on  being  covered  up,  it  was 
pressed  more  tightly  together.  As  the  number  of  layers  above 
increased,  causing  the  pressure  to  become  very  great,  it  gradually 

changed  into  coal,  making 
coal  beds  that  are  often 
from  six  to  twelve  feet  in 
thickness. 


All  this  time,  and  at 
other  periods  during  the  for- 
mation of  the  continent,  iron, 
copper,  gold,  silver,  building 
stones,  and  other  materials 
that  we  need  every  day,  were 
also  being  slowly  formed; 
but  we  cannot  now  tell  their 
story. 


Fig.  5. 


Tilled  layers  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado. 
They  were  deposited  as  horizontal  beds  in  the  sea, 
as  those  of  the  Colorado  plateau  were  (Fig.  7); 
but,  during  the  mountain  folding,  they  have  been 
turned  up  on  end,  and  then  worn  away  and  irregu- 
larly carved  by  the  rains. 


The  Mountains  and 
Plateaus. — During  the 
millions  of  years  that  the 
continent  was  growing  to 
its  present  form,  there  were  rising,  in  the  East  and  West,  mountain 
systems  and  surrounding  plateaus  that  were  to  have  a  great  influence 
upon  our  climate,  and  therefore  upon  our  crops,  our  animals,  and  our- 
selves.    Being  very  old  and  much  worn  down,  the  eastern  mountains. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  5 

called  the  Appalachians  (Fig.  10),  are  neither  very  high  nor  very- 
rugged,  though  they  have  some  peaks  which  reach  more  than  a  mile 
above  sea  level.  The  western  mountains,  or  Cordilleras,  being 
younger  and  therefore  less  worn,  are  more  rugged,  and  have  peaks 
rising  three  miles  and  more  above  sea  level.  At  the  base  of  the 
Appalachians  is  a  narrow  plateau  rarely  more  than  fourteen  hundred 
feet  high;  but  the  Cordilleras  tower  above  a  broad  plateau  which  is 
itself  more  than  a  mile  in  height,  or  as  high  as  the  mountain  peaks  of 
the  East. 

Many  of  the  rocks  of  the  mountains  and  plateaus  were  deposited 
as  sediment  in  the  sea  and  afterward  raised  to  their  present  position 
by  the  movements  of  the  earth's  crust.  In  spite  of  their  great  eleva- 
tion, the  plateaus  have  remained  level  because  the  rock  layers,  or 
strata,  of  which  they  are  made,  were  kept  in  a  horizontal  or  level 
position  while  being  uplifted.  This  can  be  seen  where  rivers  have 
cut  deep  channels  in  the  earth,  showing  the  layers  of  rock  to  be  nearly 
as  level  as  when  they  were  a  part  of  the  ocean  floor. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  wrinkling  of  the  earth's  crust  has  in 
some  places  broken  and  folded  the  rock  layers,  and  formed  lofty 
mountain  ranges  in  which  the  strata  have  been  tilted  and  upturned, 
instead  of  remaining  level  (Fig.  5). 

A  part  of  the  height  of  mountains  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  rest  upon 
a  platform  of  tablelands  about  them.  Therefore  a  mountain  crest  two  miles 
above  sea  level  may  really  rise  less  than  a  mile  above  the  plateau  at  its  base. 

Mountains  are  lower  than  they  would  be  if  they  had  not  been  attacked 
for  ages  by  the  weather  and  the  rivers.  Not  only  have  they  been  lowered  by 
these  means,  but  also  greatly  carved  and  sculptured,  being  cut  into  ridges 
and  peaks,  and  crossed  by  deep  canyons  which  the  rivers  have  dug  out. 

After  mountains  have  ceased  rising,  their  peaks  are  lowered,  and  their 
valleys  broadened,  until  they  lose  much  of  their  mountain  character,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Appalachians.  Indeed,  they  may  even  be  reduced  to  a 
series  of  low  hills,  as  in  southern  New  England,  which  is  really  an  ancient 
mountain  region  now  worn  down  to  its  very  roots. 

The  folding,  breaking,  and  sculpturing  of  the  mountain  rocks  have 
had  an  important  effect  upon  mining.  As  you  see  from  Figure  7,  these 
changes  often  bring  to  view  valuable  minerals  which  were  formed  ages 
ago  and  are  now  deeply  buried  in  the  strata. 

As  we  have  seen,  some  mineral  deposits,  like  coal,  were  laid  down  in 
beds  between  other  layers  of  rock;  but  many  valuable  minerals,  such  as 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  ores,  were  deposited  in  cracks  of  the  mountain 
rock,  forming  veins.  Into  these  cracks  hot  water,  often  heated  by  deeply 
buried  masses  of  lava,  has  brought  valuable  metals  and  deposited  them  in 


6  NOBTH   AMERICA 

veins.     Iron  ore  also  has  been  deposited  by  water  in  beds  and  veins,  though 
not  always  by  hot  water. 

Volcanoes.  —  Hundreds  of  mountain  peaks  in  the  West,  instead 
of  being  made  in  the  manner  just  described,  are  volcanoes.  These 
are  built  of  molten  rock  that  has  been  forced  to  the  surface  from 
witKin  the  earth.  Though  no  longer  active,  these  peaks  are  known 
to  be  volcanoes  because  of  their  cone  shape,  the  hollows  or  craters  in 
their  tops,  and  the  lava  and  volcanic  ash  of  which  they  are  made. 

Doubtless  some  of  these  ,volcanoes  have  recently  erupted ;  indeed,  one, 
Mt.  St.  Helens  in  Washington,  is  reported  to  have  been  in  eruption  about 
a  half  century  ago.  Another,  a  hundred  miles  southeast  of  Mt.  Shasta 
(Fig.  6),  poured  forth  lava  a  short  time  ago.  This  is  known  because  the 
lava  flow  dammed  up  a  stream,  forming  a  lake,  the  waters  of  which  rose 
into  the  surrounding  forest,  and  killed  the  trees ;  but  the  trees  still  stand 
in  the  lake,  not  having  had  time  to  decay. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles  of  this  western  country  are 
covered  by  lava  flows.  The  soil  produced  by  decay  of  the  lava  is  often 
extremely  fertile,  and  that  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  central  and 
eastern  part  of  the  state  of  Washington,  which  is  largely  covered  with  it, 
has  become  noted  for  its  fruit  and  wheat.     There  the  lava  flowed  out  from 


Fig.  E. 

Vesuvius  in  eruption  in  1872,  showing  the  steam  rising  from  the  crater ;  also  from  the  lava 
that  is  flowing  down  the  slopes. 


Fig.  7. 

A  section  in  the  earth,  where  the  rocks  are  folded,  to  show  how  a  bed  of  valuable  mineral, 
such  as  the  black  layer,  may  be  brought  to  light  by  folding  and  river  cutting,  while 
elsewhere  it  is  deeply  buried. 


Fig.  8. 

Section  across  the  United  States,  to  show  the  two  highlands  and  the  great  trough  between. 
A,  Appalachians;  M,  Mississippi;  R,  Rocky  Mountains. 


Fig.  9. 

Model  showing  the  distance  which  the  Great  Ice  Sheet  reached  in  the  United  States. 
(Model  made  by  E.  E.  Howell,  Washington,  D.C.) 


PHT8I0GBAPHT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  9 

great  cracks  or  fissures  and  flooded  immense  areas  of  country.  The  area 
of  the  lava  flows  in  the  Columbia  and  Snake  river  valleys  is  more  than 
twenty-five  times  as  great  as  the  area  of  Massachusetts. 

The  Trough  between  the  Two  Mountain  Systems. — From  the  moun- 
tain systems  of  the  East  and  West,  the  land  slopes  gently  toward  the 
Mississippi  River  (Fig.  10),  which  flows  in  the  trough  made  by  the  up- 
lift of  the  two  sides  of  the  continent.  Measure  the  width  of  this  trough 
on  the  map  of  the  United  States. 

This  extensive  lowland  has  had  a  long  history,  like  the  mountains. 
In  the  early  ages  so  much  of  it  was  under  water  that  a  great  sea 
extended  from  where  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  now  lies  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  In  the  rock  layers  are  found  many  remains,  or  fossils,  of 
shells,  corals,  and  fish  that  lived  in  the  sea  of  this  ancient  time. 
Upon  dying  and  dropping  to  the  bottom,  these  animals  were  en- 
tombed in  the  beds,  which  have  since  been  hardened  to  rock. 

After  a  time  most  of  this  sea  bottom  was  raised  to  form  dry 
land,  although  a  part  of  it  which  extended  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
to  southern  Illinois  continued  to  remain  under  water.  Into  this 
sea  the  Mississippi  discharged  its  floods  and  dropped  its  load  of 
soil,  swept  from  the  distant  fields  and  mountains.  As  time  went  on, 
the  river  filled  up  the  sea  and  formed  flood  plains,  which  —  raised 
by  a  slight  uplift  —  are  among  the  most  fertile  lands  of  our  country. 
And  now  the  river  seems  bent  on  filling  up  the  Gulf  itself. 

Although  the  mountains  and  plateaus  of  our  country  are  so  far 
away  from  the  lowlands,  they  have  a  great  influence  upon  them. 
The  Mississippi  Valley,  in  all  but  its  southern  part,  is  in  a  belt  of 
the  earth  where  most  of  the  winds  blow  from  the  west.  Since 
these  winds  blow  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  they  are  at  first  damp ; 
but  upon  reaching  the  western  highlands,  they  are  compelled  to 
drop  much  of  their  moisture,  and  then  they  pass  on  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  as  dry  winds.  This  causes  the  plains  and  plateaus 
of  the  northwest  to  be  dry  or  arid.  The  eastern  and  southern 
portions  of  the  valley  have  a  more  humid  climate.  The  reasons  for 
this  are  that  this  region  is  so  near  the  Gulf  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
is  separated  from  the  latter  by  such  low  mountains,  that  damp 
ocean  winds  are  able  to  reach  it. 

The  direction  in  which  the  ranges  extend  is  a  matter  of  great  impor- 
tance, also.  Since  the  mountains  run  north  and  south,  the  warm  south 
winds  find  no  highlands  to  check  their  northward  course.  Therefore,  they 
are  able  to  carry  warmth  and  moisture  a  great  distance,  even  far  into  the 

1— A« 


Fig.  10. 
Relief  Map  of  North  America 


It 


I 


Fig.  11. 
Some  hummocks  in  a  moraine  formed  by  the  Great  Glacier  near  Ithaca,  N.Y. 


Fig.  12. 

A  New  England  lake  formed  by  a  dam  of  drift  left  by  the  glacier.  It  is  very  irregular 
because  the  water  behind  the  dam  has  risen  into  many  valleys,  leaving  only  the  hilltops 
above  the  surface. 


Fig.  13. 

A  picture  of  the  irregular  coast  of  southern  Alaska,  near  Sitka,  where  the  sinking  of  the 
land  has  drowned  the  valleys,  leaving  only  the  hilltops  projecting  above  the  sea. 

11 


12 


NORTH  AMEBICA 


northern  part  of  the  United  States.  In  consequence,  the  Mississippi 
Valley  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  farming  sections  in  the  world,  pro- 
ducing a  great  variety  of  crops.  Where  the  summers  are  shortest,  though 
still  warm,  excellent  wheat  is  raised ;  farther  south,  corn  is  the  principal 
crop ;  and  in  the  southern  part,  where  the  summers  are  longest  and  hot- 
test, tobacco,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  rice  are  grown. 

How  different  it  would  be  if  a  great  mountain  system  extended  east 
and  west  across  the  continent!  The  warm  summer  winds  could  not,  then, 
carry  their  warmth  and  moisture  so  far  north ;  neither  could  the  north 
winds,  which  are  cool  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter,  reach  so  far  south. 
The  north  winds  are  very  important ;  they  moderate  the  heat  of  summer 
and  bring  cool  weather  in  winter.  Sometimes  they  do  damage  in  winter 
by  causing  destructive  frosts,  even  as  far  south  as  Florida.  Then  the 
orange  and  lemon  trees  suffer  greatly.  But  they  also  do  good,  for  too 
much  heat  takes  away  the  vigor  of  the  people,  while  cool  air  makes  them 
more  active. 

The  Great  Ice  Age.  —  Long  after  the  coal  beds  were  formed,  and 
the  great  highlands  and  valleys  were  built,  another  very  important 
event  happened  in  the  preparation  of  this  continent  for  our 
home.  That  was  the  formation  of  a  great  tee  sheet  or  glacier,  which 
covered  a  large  part  of  northern  North  America.  This  glacier  had 
much  to  do  with  making  the  lakes,  waterfalls,  and  even  the  soil 
itself,  in  that  section. 


Fig.  14. 

Face  of  Muir  Glacier,  Alaska.  It  is  a  great  waste  of  ice,  slowly  moving  down  from  the  in- 
terior to  the  coast  and  ending  in  the  sea,  where  icebergs  break  off  and  float  away.  Some 
of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  picture. 


FHT8I00RAPHY  OF  NOBTH  AMERICA 


IS 


The  Greenland  glacier  (Fig.  15)  is  made  of  snow  which  has  fallen  on 
the  high  interior  in  such  immense  quantities  that  the  pressure  upon  the 
under  part  has  changed  it  to  ice,  as  pressure  from  your  hands  will  change 
a  snowball  to  ice.  As  the  snow  collects  and  becomes  ice,  it  spreads  out,  or 
JlowSf  from  the  interior  toward  the  coast,  much  as  a  piece  of  wax  may  be 


Fia.  16. 
The  ice  front  of  a  Greenland  glacier. 


made  to  flow  if  a  weight  is  placed  upon  it.  Moving  toward  the  sea,  the 
glacier  drags  away  the  soil,  tears  off  fragments  of  the  rock,  and  scours  the 
rock  layers,  as  if  it  were  a  great  sand-paper.  The  movement  is  very  slow, 
yet  the  ice  is  always  pushing  onward  to  the  sea,  where  enormous  icebergs 
are  continually  breaking  off  and  floating  away  (Fig.  14). 

The  glacier  which  formerly  extended  over  a  part  of  our  conti- 
nent was  likewise  made  of  snow.  It  covered  most  of  northeastern 
America,  reaching  as  far  south  as  New  York  City  and  the  Ohio 
River,  but  not  so  far  south  in  the  Northwest  (Fig.  9).  Being  over 
a  mile  deep  in  its  thickest  part,  and  in  consequence  very  heavy,  the 
glacier  swept  away  the  soil  which  had  previously  been  made,  as 
well  as  fragments  of  solid  rock. 

Although  the  glacier  was  always  pushing  southward  into  our  country, 
its  southern  end  was  continually  melting  away,  owing  to  the  warmer 
climate  which  it  met.  At  times  the  movement  was  just  rapid  enough  to 
supply  the  waste  due  to  this  melting,  so  that  the  edge  remained  in  nearly 
the   same  position  for  years.     All  this  time  the  sand,  gravel,  and  rock, 


14  NORTH  AMERICA 

which  had  been  carried  along  in  the  ice,  were  being  piled  up  along  the 
line  where  the  glacier  melted,  forming  a  great  mass  called  a  moraine. 

After  standing  for  a  while  and  building  a  moraine  in  one  place,  the 
glacier  front  often  advanced  to  the  south,  or  melted  away  toward  the  north, 
building  up  other  irregular  piles  of  moraine  hummocks. 

During  the  thousands  of  years  that  the  glacier  lasted,  it  carried 
millions  of  tons  of  clay  and  rock  from  one  place  to  another  and  built 
many  low  hills.  As  it  slipped  over  the  surface,  it  ground  boulders 
and  pebbles  together  and  rubbed  them  against  the  solid  rock,  scratch- 
ing and  grooving  it  (Fig.  16).  Scratches  thus  made  may  still  be 
seen  pointing  northward,  toward  the  place  from  which  the  glacier 
moved.  This  work  of  rasping,  digging,  carrying,  and  dumping  done 
by  the  glacier  has  led  to  its  being  compared  to  a  combined  file,  plow, 
and  dump  cart  of  immense  size. 

Finally,  after  thousands  of  years,  the  great  ice  sheet  melted  away. 
No  one  is  able  to  say  why  it  came  or  why  it  went  away ;  but  that  it  was 
here  and  did  the  work  described,  all  who  have  studied  the  subject  are 
fully  convinced. 

It  was  this  glacier  which  caused  the  great  number  of  lakes  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  North  America.      Minnesota  alone  is  said  to 

have  ten  thousand,  and  in  New 
England  there  are  also  thousands 
(Fig.  12  and  Fig.  58,  p.  64);  but 
most  of  the  states  outside  of  the 
glacial  region  have  extremely  few. 
The  manner  in  which  these 
lakes  were  formed  is  as  follows: 
^^^-  ^^-  ^^^^H^^^^^^^^H       The  load  of  clay  and  boulders,  or 

^Tockmadeby^^^^^H  ^^^Z'^'  ^^  it  is  Called,  was  dumped 
the  glacier  in  ^^^^^^^^^  irregularly  over  the  land.  It 
passing  over  it.  Sometimes  partly  filled  valleys  and 

built  up  dams,  behind  which  ponds  and  lakes  collected.  The  glacier 
also  formed  lake  basins  by  digging,  or  plowing,  directly  into  the 
rock.  Even  the  Great  Lakes  did  not  exist  before  the  glacier  came ; 
their  basins  occupy  broad  river  valleys  which  have  been  blocked  by 
dams  of  drift  and  deepened  by  the  plowing  of  the  Great  Ice  Sheet. 

The  glacier  also  had  an  important  influence  upon  our  manufactur- 
ing. Its  load  of  rock  fragments  often  filled  parts  of  valleys  so  that, 
after  the  ice  was  gone,  the  streams  were  compelled  to  seek  new 
courses.     These  courses  often  lay  down  steep  slopes  or  across  buried 


PHTSIOGRAPHT  OF  NOBTH  AMERICA  16 

ledges,  over  which  the  water  tumbled  in  a  succession  of  rapids  and 
falls.  Even  the  great  cataract  of  Niagara  was  caused  in  this  way, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  many  of  the  falls  and  rapids  of  hilly  New 
England  and  New  York.  The  many  lakes  act  as  storehouses  to 
keep  the  noisy  falls  and  rapids  well  supplied  with  water.  For  these 
reasons  New  England  and  New  York  have  such  abundant  water 
power  that  they  early  grew  to  be  the  greatest  manufacturing  centers 
of  the  Union.  In  sections  of  the  country  not  reached  by  the  glacier, 
rapids  and  falls  are  much  less  common.  Did  the  glacier  cover  the 
land  on  which  you  live? 

A  third  important  influence  of  the  glacier  was  upon  the  soil.  In 
most  other  parts  of  the  country  the  soil  has  been  made  by  the  decai/ 
of  rock  (see  Primary  Book,  p.  2) ;  but  in  the  glacial  region  the  de- 
cayed rock  was  swept  away  and  replaced  by  drift  brought  by  the 


FiQ.  17. 
Desolation  Valley,  California,  showing  effects  of  a  glacier. 

glacier.  This  was  made  by  the  grinding  of  rocks  together,  much  as 
flour  is  made  by  grinding  wheat ;  in  fact,  glacial  soil  is  sometimes 
called  rock  flour.  As  the  glacier  scraped  along,  it  ground  an  enor- 
mous quantity  of  rock  to  bits,  so  that  when  it  melted,  a  layer  of  drift 
was  left,  in  some  places  reaching  a  depth  of  several  hundred  feet. 
Most  of  the  clays  from  which  bricks  are  made  in  the  North  were 
also  brought  by  the  ice  sheet. 

With  the  melting  of  the  glacier,  much  water  was  produced.  This 
washed  out  and  carried  off  a  great  deal  of  clay,  in  some  places  leaving 
extensive  sand  and  gravel  plains,  making  a  soil  not  very  fertile  (Fig.  17). 

The  bits  of  ground-up  rock  left  by  the  glacier  have  an  important  effect 
upon  the  soil.  Since  these  fragments  were  gathered  up  from  many  places, 
and  from  many  different  kinds  of  rock,  they  sometimes  cause  a  fertile  soil 
in  places  where  the  decay  of  the  rocks  would  have  naturally  caused  a  ster- 
ile soil.  In  some  places  the  glacier  failed  to  grind  the  rock  into  tiny  bits, 
leaving  pebbles  and  even  large  boulders  to  cover  the  ground. 


16 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  Coast  Line.  —  In  studying  about  the  Mississippi  Valley  and 
the  formation  of  coal,  we  have  seen  that  the  land  and  sea  bottom  are 
not  fixed,  but  that  they  often  slowly  rise  or  sink. 

Such  changes  in  the  land  level  are  even  now  in  progress  in  many 
places,  though  so  slowly  that  it  requires  years,  and  even  centuries,  to 
notice  them.  For  instance,  along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  the  land 
is  sinking  at  the  rate  of  about  two  feet  a  century,  while  the  land 
around  Hudson  Bay  is  rising. 

Some  of  the  recent  changes  in  the  level  of  the  land  have  had  an 
important  effect  upon  the  coast  line.  For  example,  the  reason  we 
find  so  many  islands  and  peninsulas  along  the  northeastern  coast 
(Fig.  42)  is  that  this  section  has  been  lowered  several  hundred  feet. 
By  this  means  the  ocean  water  has  been  allowed  to  enter  the  valleys, 
while  the  higher  land  between  them  extends  above  the  water  in  the 
form  of  peninsulas,  capes,  and  islands. 

The  peninsulas  of  Labrador  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  hundreds 
of  islands  along  the  northeastern  coast,  including  Newfoundland,  owe 
their  existence  to  this  sinking.  The  irregular  Pacific  coast  from 
Puget  Sound  northward  (Fig.  13)  was  produced  in  the  same  way. 

By  this  sinking  of  the  land  many  good  harbors  were  made,  the  best 
ones  being  where  rivers  enter  the  sea.  When  the  land  was  higher,  the 
streams  carved  out  broad  valleys,  into  which,  when  the  land  sank,  the  sea 
water  entered,  forming  bays  and  harbors.  That  is  the  way  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  was  formed  ;  also  New  York,  Delaware,  Chesapeake,  and 
San  Francisco  bays,  as  well  as  the  many  excellent  harbors  of  the  East. 


Fig.  18. 
A  part  of  the  raised  sea  bottom  which  forms  the  level  plain  of  Florida. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  17 

One  reason  for  so  few  good  harbors  along  the  coast  of  the  South- 
ern States  is  that  the  land  in  this  section  has  been  rising  out  of  the 
sea.  Just  off  the  coast  is  a  broad  ocean-bottom  plain  where  the  water 
is  shallow  (Figs.  43,  63,  and  86),  while  still  farther  out,  the  bottom 
slopes  rapidly  and  the  ocean  becomes  very  deep. 

That  part  of  the  Southern  States  which  borders  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  ocean  was  once  a  portion  of  this  ocean-bottom  plain; 
but  it  has  been  raised  until  it  is  now  a  low,  level  plain  (Fig.  18). 
Since  the  continental  shelf  is  so  level,  when  a  part  of  it  was  lifted 
above  the  water  there  were  few  places  for  deep  inlets,  bays,  and 
harbors.  After  being  raised,  the  coast  was  slightly  lowered;  but 
the  bays  thus  formed  are  shallow  and  the  harbors  poor. 

The  level  plain  of  the  Florida  peninsula  is  also  a  sea  bottom  that 
has  been  lifted  above  the  ocean.  Many  of  the  lakes  and  swamps 
which  abound  in  that  region  are  believed  to  be  due  to  the  shallow 
basins  built  by  the  irregular  deposit  of  sediment  on  the  old  sea  floor. 

Size,  Shape,  and  Position.  — North  America  is  third  in  size  among 
the  six  continents  of  the  earth.  By  reference  to  the  tables  in  the 
Appendix,  find  whicli  are  larger  and  which  smaller. 

After  being  changed  in  shape  during  millions  of  years,  owing  to 
the  rising  and  sinking  of  the  land,  it  at  present  has  the  form  of  a 
triangle  with  the  broadest  portion  in  the  north.  Draw  the  triangle. 
Compare  its  shape  with  that  of  South  America  and  Africa  (Fig.  512). 
The  northern  part  is  so  wide  that  Alaska  extends  to  within  fifty 
miles  of  Asia ;  but  Labrador  is  over  two  thousand  miles  away  from 
Europe.  The  distance  from  Alaska  to  Asia  is  so  short  that  the  early 
ancestors  of  our  Indians  and  Eskimos  probably  first  reached  North 
America  by  crossing  over  from  Asia.  On  account  of  the  greater  dis- 
tance across  the  Atlantic,  Europeans  for  a  long  time  did  not  know 
that  North  America  existed  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Norsemen 
from  Norway  visited  our  shores  nearly  five  hundred  years  before 
Columbus  discovered  the  continent. 

Those  portions  of  North  America  whicli  are  nearest  to  Asia  and 
Europe  are  so  cold  that  few  people  live  there.  Farther  south,  where 
most  of  the  inhabitants  live,  the  continents  are  spread  farther  apart, 
as  you  will  see  by  examining  a  globe.  The  broad  Atlantic  must  be 
crossed  in  passing  from  Europe  to  America ;  the  difficulty  of  sending 
large  armies  with  necessary  supplies,  this  great  distance  across  the 
sea,  helps  to  explain  why  the  Spanish  colonies  were  able  to  win  their 
independence  from  Spain,  and  the  United  States  from  England. 


IS  KOBTH  AMEBIC  A 

This  separation  of  Europe  from  America  has  also  helped  in  the 
development  of  our  industries.  At  first,  the  colonists  brought  even 
bricks,  doors,  and  timber  from  Europe  ;  but  although  the  ocean  is 
an  excellent  highway,  it  is  expensive  to  send  goods  such  long  dis- 
tances. Therefore  the  settlers  soon  learned  to  raise  and  make  most 
of  the  articles  that  they  needed  for  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 

Nevertheless,  the  ocean  is  such  an  excellent  highway  that  ships 
are  able  to  sail  across  it  in  every  direction  and  bring  what  we  really 
need,  or  carry  back  such  products  as  cotton  and  tobacco,  which 
Europeans  desire.  Ships  have  also  brought  to  us  the  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  English,  Irish,  Germans,  French,  Swedes,  and  others 
who  have  settled  and  developed  our  country,  and  whose  descendants 
are  its  citizens.  Since  Europe  is  our  mother  land,  it  has  been,  and 
is  still,  very  important  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  its  various 
nations.  This  has  been  made  possible  partly  by  the  shortness  of 
the  journey,  now  that  vessels  are  moved  by  steam,  and  partly  by  the 
excellent  harbors  caused  by  the  sinking  of  our  coast. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  is  much  wider  than  the  Atlantic  (see  a  globe),  and 
therefore  much  more  difiicult  to  cross.  Although  the  shores  of  Asia  which 
face  North  America  are  densely  settled,  until  recently  we  have  not  needed 
to  have  much  commerce  with  the  inhabitants  of  that  continent  because 
they  were  not  very  progressive.  Now,  however,  the  Japanese  have 
adopted  the  methods  of  modern  civilization,  and  we  have  come  into  con- 
trol of  the  Philippine  Islands,  so  that  many  of  our  ships  cross  the  Pacific. 

South  America  is  also  easily  reached  by  water,  and  there  is  much  trade 
with  the  various  countries  of  that  continent.  Although  South  America  is 
joined  to  North  America  by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama,  there  is  at 
present  no  railway  connecting  the  two  continents,  though  one  is  being 
planned.  This  isthmus  is  a  great  barrier  to  ocean  commerce  between 
eastern  and  western  United  States  and  between  the  Eastern  States  and 
Asia.  It  is  very  narrow,  and  in  places  only  two  or  three  hundred  feet 
high ;  yet,  because  it  is  there,  ships  must  travel  thousands  of  miles  around 
South  America.  A  railway  crosses  it,  and  a  ship  canal  is  being  built  across 
the  isthmus.     Of  what  advantage  will  this  canal  be  to  the  United  States  ? 

Summary.  —  So  we  see  that  our  continent,  as  we  know  it,  has 
not  been  here  from  the  beginning ;  instead  of  that,  millions  of 
years  have  been  required  to  prepare  it  for  us.  Ocean  bottoms 
have  been  lifted  into  mountains,  plateaus,  and  valleys  ;  coal  beds, 
building  stones,  and  valuable  minerals  have  been  formed  ;  a  mighty 
glacier  has  swept  over  the  country,  grinding  rock  into  powder 
and  causing  lakes,   water   routes^  falls,  and  rapids,  and  the  coast 


PHT8I00BAPHT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  19 

has  been  sinking  here  and  rising  there,  producing  fine  harbors  in 
some  places  and  greatly  increasing  the  extent  of  the  plains  in  others. 
Our  very  position,  separated  by  the  ocean  from  the  Old  World, 
and  yet  enabling  us  to  reach  it  when  it  is  necessary,  is  an  advantage. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  What  was  the  condition  of  North  America  in  early 
times?  (2)  What  is  coal  made  from  ?  Tell  how  it  was  formed.  (3)  What  proofs 
are  there  of  this  formation  ?  (4)  What  is  peat  ?  (5)  Name  and  locate  our  two 
chief  mountain  systems.  (6)  How  high  are  the  plateaus  at  the  base  of  each? 
(7)  Explain  why  the  plateaus  are  so  level  in  spite  of  their  height.  (8)  How 
have  the  mountains  been  made  ?  (9)  Explain  what  effect  this  has  had  upon  min- 
ing. (10)  Tell  about  the  volcanoes  of  the  West.  (11)  Why  is  the  Mississippi 
Valley  called  a  trough  ?  (12)  What  was  its  condition  in  early  times  ?  (13)  How 
was  the  interior  sea  finally  changed  to  dry  land?  (14)  Mention  some  ways  in 
which  the  mountains  control  the  Mississippi  Valley.  (15)  What  differences  would 
follow  if  the  mountain  ranges  extended  east  and  west  ?  (16)  Describe  the  Green- 
land glacier.  (17)  How  far  did  the  great  American  ice  sheet  reach  ?  How  deep 
was  it?  (18)  What  are  moraines  ?  (19)  What  do  the  scratches  on  the  rocks  tell 
us  about  the  glacier?  (20)  Why  is  a  glacier  compared  to  a  plow ?  A  file?  A 
dump  cart?  (21)  In  what  ways  did  the  glacier  cause  lakes?  (22)  Falls  and 
rapids?  (23)  Soil?  (24)  What  effect  has  the  glacial  soil  upon  farming?  (25)  Tell 
the  whole  story  of  the  glacier.  (26)  Why  are  there  so  many  islands,  peninsulas, 
bays,  and  harbors  in  the  northeast  ?  (27)  Name  some  of  them.  (28)  How  have 
some  of  our  largest  bays  been  made?  Name  them.  (29)  Why  are  there  so  few 
harbors  on  our  southern  coast  ?  (30)  What  is  the  cause  of  the  southern  plains  ? 
(31)  What  is  the  continental  shelf?  (32)  How  does  North  America  compare  in 
size  with  the  other  continents  ?  (33)  How  far  is  the  mainland  from  Asia  and 
Europe?  (34)  Show  how  our  position  is  a  favorable  one.  (35)  What  is  the 
influence  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Make  a  collection  of  different  kinds  of  coal.  (2)  Examine 
some  pieces  of  soft  coal  closely  to  see  if  you  can  discover  plant  remains.  (3)  Ob- 
tain some  peat.  (4)  Learn  what  you  can  about  coal  mining.  (5)  Examine  layers 
of  rock  in  your  neighborhood  to  see  if  they  are  horizontal  or  tilted.  See  if  they 
contain  fossils.  (6)  Explain  the  meaning  of  shading  in  Fig.  10.  (7)  Make  a  model 
of  a  volcano  out  of  sand  or  clay.  (8)  What  becomes  of  the  Greenland  icebergs? 
(9)  Make  a  map  showing  the  extent  of  the  American  glacier.  (10)  What  signs 
of  the  glacier,  if  any,  can  you  find  in  your  neighborhood?  (11)  Name  several 
great  cities  that  have  grown  up  about  our  Northern  harbors.  Name  some  in  the 
South.  (12)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  northeastern  coast,  and  another  of  the 
southern  coast,  to  see  how  they  differ.  (13)  How  many  days  long  is  the  voyage, 
on  a  fast  steamer,  from  New  York  to  Liverpool?  How  many  mUes  an  hour  does 
the  steamer  go?  How  many  miles  does  that  make  the  distance  ?  (14)  How  long 
is  the  journey  from  San  Francisco  to  Manila  ?  (15)  From  New  York  to  Manila  by 
going  eastward?    Through  what  waters  would  one  pass  on  such  a  voyage  ? 

For  References  to  Books  and  Articles,  see  the  Teacher's  Book  of  this 
series. 


II.     PLANTS,   ANIMALS,   AND   PEOPLES 


The  climate  of  a  region  is  one  of  the  most  important  facts  con- 
cerning it;  for  where  temperature  and  rainfall  are  favorable,  plants 
usually  grow  luxuriantly.  And  since  plants  furnish  animals  with 
food,  where  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  animal  life  may  be  abundant. 

Since  North  America  extends  far  north  and  south,  and  possesses 
lofty  mountain  ranges  and  inclosed  plateaus,  it  has  a  great  variety 

of  climate,  and,  therefore,  a 
great  variety  of  plant  and 
animal  life. 

Plants  of  the  North.  —The 
northern  part  of  the  continent 
is  bitterly  cold.  In  that  region 
there  is  a  vast  area  where  the 
soil  is  always  frozen,  except 
at  the  very  surface,  which 
thaws  out  for  a  few  weeks  in 
summer.  On  account  of  the 
frost,  trees  such  as  we  are 
familiar  with  cannot  grow. 
Their  roots  are  unable  to 
penetrate  the  frozen  subsoil 
and  to  find  the  necessary  plant 
food.  There  are  some  wil- 
lows, birches,  and  a  few  other  plants  with  woody  tissue,  bark, 
leaves,  and  fruit;  but  instead  of  towering  scores  of  feet  into  the  air, 
they  creep  along  the  surface  like  vines,  and  rise  bat  an  inch  or  two 
above  ground.  Only  by  thus  hugging  the  earth  can  they  escape  the 
fierce  blasts  of  winter  and  find  protection  beneath  the  snow. 

A  few  grasses  and  small  flowering  plants  grow  rapidly,  produce 
flowers,  even  close  by  the  edge  of  snowbanks  (Fig.  19),  and  then 
pass  away,  all  within  the  few  short  weeks  of  summer.  Some  of 
these  plants  produce  berries,  which  after  ripening  are  preserved  by 
the  snows;  thus,  when  the  birds  arrive  in  the  spring,  they  find  food 
ready  for  them. 

20 


Fig.  19. 

Arctic  poppies  growing  on  ide  edge  of  a 
snowbank. 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


21 


Animals  of  the  North. — The  summer  development  of  insects  is 
rapid,  like  the  growth  of  plants.  As  the  snow  melts  and  the  surface 
thaws,  the  ground  becomes  wet  and  swampy,  and  countless  millions 
of  insects  appear.  Among  them  the  most  common  is  the  mosquito. 
There  are  few  parts  of  the  world  where  this  insect  is  a  worse  pest 
than  on  the  barrens  of  North  America  and  the  tundras  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  as  these  treeless, 
frozen  lands  are  called. 

Few  large  land  animals  are 
able  to  thrive  in  so  cold  a 
climate  and  where  there  is 
such  an  absence  of  plant  food. 
The  reindeer,  or  caribou,  the 
musk  ox,  polar  bear,  white  fox, 
and  Arctic  hare  are  the  largest 
four-footed  land  animals  (  Fig. 
21) ;  and  the  crow,  sparrow, 
and  ptarmigan  are  the  most 
common  land  birds. 


Fig.  20. 
Walrus  on  the  Arctic  floe  ice. 


The  ptarmigan  changes  its 
plumage  to  white  in  winter. 
Some  of  the  other  animals  of  the 

Arctic,  such  as  the  fox,  polar  bear,  and  hare,  are  also  white.  This  serves 
to  conceal  them,  in  that  land  of  snow  and  ice,  so  that  they  may  hide  from 
their  enemies,  or  steal  upon  their  prey  unawares. 

The  tiny  white  fox  feeds  upon  birds  and  other  animal  food ;  but  the 
other  land  animals,  except  the  polar  bear,  live  upon  plants,  such  as 
berries,  grass,  and  moss.  The  caribou  finds  a  kind  of  plant,  called 
"reindeer  moss,"  which  grows  upon  rocks  that  rise  above  the  deep 
winter  snows.  If  it  were  not  for  this,  the  reindeer  would  not  be 
able  to  live  through  the  long  winter.  Often  also  he  paws  through  the 
snow  to  find  this  moss. 


While  some  animals  live  upon  the  land  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
many  more  have  their  homes  in  the  sea,  because  there,  except  at 
the  very  surface,  the  temperature  never  descends  below  the  freezing 
point.  Therefore  there  is  plenty  of  animal  life  of  all  sizes,  from 
the  very  tiniest  forms  to  the  whale,  the  largest  animal  in  the 
world.  During  the  winter  the  surface  of  the  sea  freezes  over  ; 
and  then  many  of  the  sea  animals  migrate  southward.  Even  the 
huge  walrus   (Fig.  20)   moves   clumsily  toward   a  more  favorable 


22  NOBTH    AMERICA 

climate.  The  birds  go  farthest,  especially  the  geese,  ducks,  and 
gulls,  which  fly  to  Labrador,  New  England,  North  Carolina,  and 
even  farther  south,  to  spend  the  winter  where  their  food  is  not 
covered  by  ice. 

Sea  birds  exist  by  hundreds  of  thousands  (Fig.  21),  building  their 
"uests  upon  rocky  cliffs  in  immense  numbers.  Indeed,  they  are  so  numer- 
ous that,  when  suddenly  frightened,  as  by  the  firing  of  a  gun,  they  rise  in 
a  dense  cloud  that  obscures  the  sun.  Then,  with  their  cries  they  produce 
a  din  that  is  almost  deafening.  In  the  water,  seals  (Figs.  190  and 
266)  and  walruses  live,  the  former  being  so  valuable  for  their  oil  and 
skins  that  men  go  on  long  voyages  to  obtain  them.  The  oil  comes  from 
a  layer  of  fat,  or  "blubber,''  just  beneath  the  skin,  that  serves  to  keep 
out  the  cold. 

The  seal  is  the  most  common  of  the  Arctic  sea  animals,  and  is  the 
principal  food  of  the  Eskimo  and  polar  bear  (Fig.  266).  The  bear,  pro- 
tected from  observation  by  his  white  color,  stealthily  creeps  upon  his  prey, 
?,sleep  upon  the  ice ;  or,  he  patiently  watches  until  his  victim  swims  within 
reach,  and  then  seizes  him  with  his  powerful  claws. 

Plants  and  Animals  in  Western  North  America.  —  A  large  area  in 
western  United  States  and  Mexico  has  a  very  slight  rainfall,  although 
its  temperature  is  agreeable.  This  arid  area  includes  most  of  the 
territory  having  less  than  twenty  inches  of  rain. 

In  some  places,  as  near  the  Pacific  coast  and  upon  the  mountain 
tops  and  high  plateaus,  there  is  rain  enough  for  forests  to  thrive  ;  but 
in  most  parts  of  the  Far  West  the  climate  is  so  dry  that  there  are  no 
trees  whatsoever.  Indeed,  some  portions  of  the  West  are  desolate 
in  the  extreme  and  inhabited  by  those  peculiar  forms  of  life,  both 
plants  and  animals,  characteristic  of  true  deserts. 

One  common  plant  is  the  bunch  grass,  so  called  because  it  grows 
in  little  tufts  or  bunches.  The  sage  bush,  a  plant  with  a  pale  green 
leaf,  named  because  of  its  sagelike  odor,  is  found  throughout  most 
of  this  arid  region.  Other  common  plants  are  the  mesquite,  the 
century  plant  with  its  sharp-pointed  leaves  (Fig.  199,  p.  209),  and 
the  cactus  with  its  numerous  thorns.  In  favorable  spots,  in  the 
warm  Southwest,  the  mesquite  grows  to  large  size.  The  cactus 
in  the  North  is  always  low  with  few  varieties,  while  in  the  South- 
west it  grows  in  greater  variety  and,  in  some  cases,  even  to  the 
height  of  trees  (Fig.   23). 

On  account  of  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  climate,  these  plants  have 
a  severe  struggle  for  existence,  and  adopt  peculiar  means  for  protecting 


ARCTIC  rox 


'aRMIGAN 


GjiLLlMOT 


Fig.  21. 

Some  of  the  animals  of  the  North.  The  great  auk  had  such  small  wings  that  it  could 
not  fly.  It  was  killed  in  great  numbers  by  sailors,  and  has  been  completely  exter- 
minated. 


Fig.  22. 
Some  of  the  animals  of  the  plateaus  and  mountains  of  the  Far  Westo 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


25 


themselves.     For  example,  the  cactus,  unlike  other  plants,  has  no  leaves. 

It  thus  exposes  little  surface  to  the  air  for  evaporation.     In  its  great, 

fleshy  stem  it  stores  water  to  use  through  the  long,  dry  seasons,  while 

spines  protect  it  from  animals  in  search  of 

food.     Some  of  these  plants,  as  mesquite, 

are  so  bitter  that  they  are  not  eaten  by 

animals.    The  mesquite  also  protects  itself 

by  spines,  and  in  addition  has  such  large 

roots   that   the   part   of  the   plant   under 

ground  is  greater  than  that  above.     The 

roots  of  this  plant  are  an  important  source 

of  wood  for  fuel. 

Animals  eat  few  of  the  arid  land 
plants  except  the  grasses,  which  were 
once  the  food  of  the  buffalo,  or  hison 
(Fig.  26),  and  are  now  the  support  of 
cattle  and  sheep  (Figs.  114  and  185). 
The  bison,  whose  home  was  on  tlie 
prairies  and  the  arid  plains  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  now  gone,  and 
few  large  animals  are  left  in  its  place. 
The  graceful  antelope  and  the  cowardly 
prairie  wolf,  or  coyote^  and  the  rabbits 
upon  which  the  latter  feeds,  are  the 
most  abundant  (Fig.  22).  Among  the 
rabbits  is  the  long-legged  jack  rabbit,  which  leaps  across  the  plains 
with  astonishing  speed,  with  its  huge  ears  thrown  back  so  far  that 
they  do  not  retard  its  progress. 

The  fierce  puma,  or  mountain  lion,  still  lives  among  the  mountains, 
and  also  the  ugly  cinnamon  and  grizzly  bears  (Fig.  22),  though  the 
latter  are  now  rare  and  difficult  to  find.  Deer  and  elk  inhabit  the 
forest-covered  mountains  of  southern  Canada  and  northwestern 
United  States  ;  and  among  the  higher  peaks  a  few  mountain  goats 
and  sheep  still  live  on  the  more  inaccessible  rocky  crags  (Fig.  22). 
The  sheep  have  huge  horns  much  prized  by  hunters. 

Plants  and  Animals  of  the  Tropical  Zone. — Contrast  the  life  in 
the  frozen  North  and  the  arid  West  with  that  in  Central  America 
and  southern  Mexico.  In  these  regions,  which  are  situated  in  the 
torrid  zone,  the  temperature  is  always  warm ;  and  the  rainfall,  espe- 
cially on  the  eastern  coast,  is  so  heavy  that  all  the  conditions  are 
favorable  for  dense  vegetation- 

4— k« 


Fig.  23. 

Giant  cactus  in  the  desert  of  south- 
western Arizona. 


J6  NORTH  AMERICA 

Indeed,  the  tangle  of  growth  in  the  forests  is  so  great  that  it  is  practi- 
cally impossible  to  pass  through  it  without  hewing  one's  way.  Besides 
trees  and  underbrush,  there  are  quantities  of  ferns,  vines,  and  flowers, 
many  of  which  hang  from  the  trees  with  their  roots  in  the  air  instead  of  in 
the  ground.  They  are  able  to  live  in  this  way  on  account  of  the  damp  air. 
Among  the  trees  are  the  valuable  rosewood,  mahogany,  ebony,  and  rubber 
tree ;  and  among  the  flowers  are  the  beautiful  orchids.  On  account  of  the 
continual  warmth  and  moisture,  many  plants,  like  the  banana  for  instance, 
bear  fruit  throughout  the  year. 

In  the  midst  of  such  luxuriant  vegetation,  animal  life  is  won- 
derfully varied  and  abundant.  There  are  the  tapir,  monkey,  and 
jaguar  (Fig.  24) ;  brilliantly  colored  birds,  such  as  parrots,  paroquets, 
and  humming  birds;  and  millions  of  insects.  Scorpions  and  centi- 
peds  abound,  and  ants  exist  in  countless  numbers,  some  in  the  ground, 
others  in  decayed  vegetation.  Serpents,  some  of  them  poisonous,  are 
common  in  the  forests ;  and  in  the  rivers  are  fish  and  alligators,  the 
latter  being  found  as  far  north  as  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

Plants  and  Animals  in  the  Temperate  Part  of  North  America.  — 
Between  the  frigid  and  torrid  zones,  and  both  east  and  west  of  the 
arid  region,  is  an  area  of  moderate  rainfall  and  temperature  where 
the  vegetation  and  animals  differ  from  those  of  the  other  sections. 
Beginning  in  the  warm  south  and  passing  northward,  we  find  that 
both  animals  and  plants  grow  less  numerous  and  less  varied  until, 
near  the  Arctic  zone,  they  become  scarce  and  few  in  kind.  The 
pines  and  oaks  of  the  United  States  give  place  to  the  spruce,  balsam 
fir,  and  maple  in  Canada ;  then  these  gradually  become  stunted  and 
disappear,  and  beyond  this  the  barrens  are  reached  (p.  21). 

The  animals  that  once  inhabited  the  broad  temperate  zone  have 
been  mostly  destroyed,  although  some  still  live  in  the  forest  and 
mountain  region.  They  are  carefully  protected  by  state  laws,  which 
prohibit  shooting  except  at  certain  seasons,  and  then  only  in  small 
numbers.  When  America  was  first  visited  by  Europeans,  these 
woods  abounded  in  deer,  moose,  caribou,  wolves,  and  foxes  (Fig.  25). 
Beavers  built  dams  across  the  streams,  the  mink  and  otter  fished  in 
the  waters,  and  bears  roamed  at  will.  Among  the  birds,  the  eagle 
was  very  common,  and  wild  pigeons  and  turkeys  were  so  abundant 
that  they  were  one  of  the  principal  foods  of  the  early  settlers. 

Some  believe  that  at  one  time  most  of  the  eastern  United  States  was 
wooded,  including  the  fertile  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  from  which 
tke  trees  were  burned  by  fires  set  by  the  Indians.     Grass  then  sprang  up 


Fig.  24. 
▲  few  of  the  animals  of  the  tropical  forest!. 

>7 


Fig.  26. 
Some  of  the  animals  of  northeastern  United  States  and  southeastern  Canada^ 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


89 


in  place  of  the  trees,  and  the  prairies  became  the  grazing  place  for  immense 

herds  of  bison  or  buffalo  (Fig.  26).  The  bison,  however,  like  the  other  animals 
mentioned,  have  been  mostly  destro3^ed ;  thousands  upon  thousands  were 
slaughtered  for  their  hides  and  tongues  only,  and  their  bones  left  to  whiten 
upon  the  plains.  There  are  now  no  wild  bison  in  the  United  States,  except  a 
few  which  are  protected  by  the  government  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 
In  this  Park,  where  hunting  is  prohibited,  are  numbers  of  deer  (Fig.  25)  and 
elk  (Fig.  22).  There  are  also  black,  cinnamon,  and  grizzly  bears,  which  are 
so  tame  that  they  come  down  to  the  hotels  at  night  to  feed  upon  the  garbage. 


Fig.  26. 
One  of  the  immense  herds  of  bison  that  formerly  roamed  over  the  treeless  plains. 

A  slow  change  has  been  in  progress  in  this  temperate  section,  which, 
when  first  discovered,  was  clothed  in  forests  and  luxuriant  prairie 
grass,  and  inhabited  by  Indians  and  wild  beasts.  The  white  man  has 
come  into  possession  of  the  land  and  has  cleared  the  forests  and  plowed 
the  prairies,  so  that,  where  trees  stood  and  Indians  hunted  the  bison 
and  other  game,  there  are  now  fertile  farms  and  thriving  cities. 

Our  crops  and  domesticated  animals  well  illustrate  how  man  has 
learned  to  make  use  of  nature  for  his  needs.  Every  one  of  our  cultivated 
plants  was  once  a  wild  plant ;  and  each  of  our  domesticated  animals  has 
been  tamed  from  the  wild  state.  Most  of  these  have  come  from  Europe  and 
Asia ;  but  America  has  added  some  to  the  list.  Among  plants  in  common 
use,  the  Indian  corn  or  maize,  the  tobacco,  tomato,  pumpkin,  and  potato  were 
unknown  to  the  Old  World  until  America  was  discovered.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  turkey ;  and  perhaps,  in  a  hundred  years  or  so,  the  bison  may 
be  included  among  the  domesticated  animals,  for  on  the  cattle  ranches  of 
the  West  a  few  small  herds  are  being  carefully  reared. 


30 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Peoples 

Eskimos.  —  America  was  inhabited  for  thousands  of  years  before 
it  was  discovered  by  white  men.  To  the  natives  in  the  southern 
part  Columbus  gave  the  name  Indians,  supposing  he  had  reached 
India.  Those  in  the  Far  North  (Fig.  F),  who  subsist  on  meat, 
are  called  Eskimos,  a  word  meaning  flesh-eaters. 

To-day,  in  some  places,  the  Eskimos  live  in  very  nearly  the  same 
condition  as  formerly,  their  climate  being  so  severe  that  white  men 


Fig.  27. 
Eskimo  igloos  in  Baffin  Land. 

have  not  settled  among  them  nor  interfered  with  their  customs. 
They  still  roam  about  in  summer,  living  in  skin  tents,  or  tuples,  and 
in  the  winter  erecting  snow  and  ice  huts,  or  igloos  (Fig.  27).  Their 
struggle  is  a  hard  one,  for  they  not  only  have  to  battle  against  cold, 
but  also  to  obtain  their  food  amid  great  difficulties.  In  this  they  are 
aided  by  their  dogs,  doubtless  domesticated  wolves,  which,  like  their 
masters,  are  able  to  subsist  upon  a  meat  diet  and  withstand  the 
severe  Arctic  cold.  Every  Eskimo  man  has  his  team  of  dogs  to 
draw  his  sledge  over  the  frozen  sea. 

Indians.  —  Indians  were  originally  scattered  over  most   of  the 
country  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.     This  is  indicated  by  the  places 


PEOPLES 


31 


that  bear  Indian  names,  as  Narragansett,  Erie,  Niagara,  Huron, 
Ottawa,  Illinois,  Dakota,  Pueblo,  and  Sioux  City.  Some  of  the 
tribes  were  true  savages  (Fig.  D)  ;  others,  not  so  savage,  may  be 
classed  as  barbarians.  They  raised  "  Indian  corn  "  and  tobacco,  made 
potterj^,  used  tools  and  weapons  made  of  stone,  and  lived  in  villages. 
In  southwestern  United  States,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  the 
aborigines  were  more  civilized.  Much  of  that  region  is  arid ;  but  the 
Indians  raised  crops  by  irrigation,  and  built  fortresses  of  stone  and  sun- 
dried  brick  (Fig.  28).  These  were  erected  partly  as  homes  for  protec- 
tion from  surrounding  savages,  and  partly  as  storehouses  for  grain. 


Fig.  28. 

The  pueblo  of  Taos  in  New  Mexico.    Notice  the  ladders  leading  to  the  roofs  upon  which  are 

the  house  entrances. 


The  most  noted  among  these  Indians  were  the  Aztecs,  who  occu- 
pied the  city  of  Mexico  and  some  of  the  neighboring  country.  They 
had  government  and  religion  much  better  developed  than  the  bar- 
barous and  savage  tribes.  They  mined  gold  and  silver  and  manu- 
factured the  metals  into  various  articles ;  they  wove  blankets,  and 
ornamented  their  pottery  and  their  buildings  in  an  artistic  manner. 
Living  the  quiet  life  of  the  farmer,  the  Aztecs  preferred  peace  to 
war,  and  a  settled  home  to  the  nomadic  life  of  the  hunter. 

While  some  tribes  thus  approached  a  state  of  civilization,  the  Indians, 
as  a  race,  never  became  a  powerful  people.     For  this  there  are  several 


82 


iromrH  ambmioa 


reasons.  Instead  of  forming  one  great  confederacy  and  living  at  peace 
with  one  another,  they  were  divided  into  many  tribes.  Each  tribe  had  a 
certain  area  over  which  it  could  roam  and  hunt ;  but  if  it  encroached  upon 
its  neighbors,  war  followed.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was  difficult 
for  one  tribe  to  advance  to  a  much  higher  state  of  civilization  than  the 
others. 

The  level  nature  of  the  country  rendered  this  difficulty  all  the  greater. 
Had  the  surface  of  North  America  been  very  mountainous,  some  tribes 

might  have  been  so  protected  by  sur- 
rounding mountain  walls  as  to  dare  to 
devote  themselves  to  other  work  than 
war.  Then  they  might  gradually  have 
collected  wealth  and  developed  impor- 
tant industries ;  but  the  vast  plains  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  exten- 
sive plains  and  low  mountains  of  the 
East,  allowed  little  protection.  If  any 
one  tribe  had  built  good  homes  on  these 
plains,  and  collected  treasures  within 
them,  the  neighboring  Indians  would 
have  felt  that  a  special  invitation  had 
been  extended  to  attack  them.  The 
Aztecs  were  continually  in  danger  from 
this  cause.  However,  the  fact  that  they 
were  partly  protected  by  mountains  and 
deserts,  was  one  of  the  reasons  why 
they  were  more  civilized  than  the 
Indians  of  the  northeast. 

Another  serious  obstacle  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  Indians  was  the  fact  that  they  possessed  no  domestic 
animals  for  use  in  agriculture.  The  horse,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  and  hog 
were  unknown  to  them ;  and,  without  these,  farm  work  becomes  the  worst 
drudgery,  because  every  product  must  be  raised  by  hand. 

Again,  although  there  was  much  game,  the  supply  was  never  sufficient 
to  support  a  dense  population  for  a  long  period.  Even  the  scattered  Indian 
population  was  obliged  to  wander  about  in  search  of  it.  This  prevented 
them  from  living  quietly  and  finding  time  for  improvement.  All  these 
facts  worked  against  the  advancement  of  the  Indians ;  but  they  proved  of 
great  advantage  to  the  whites,  making  it  far  easier  than  it  would  other- 
wise have  been  for  them  to  obtain  possession  of  America. 

The  Spaniards.  —  The  astonishment  of  Europe  was  great  when 
it  was  proved  that  there  were  vast  territories  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  America  was  pictured  as  containing  all  sorts  of  treasures, 
and  European  nations  vied  with  one  another  in  fitting  out  expedi- 
tions to  teike  possession  of  them. 


Fig.  29. 

Indian  woman  carrying  her  baby,  or 
papoose. 


PEOPLES  %% 

The  Spaniards  naturally  led,  for  they  were  then  one  of  the  most 
powerful  nations  of  Europe  and  had  sent  out  Columbus  as  their  repre- 
sentative. Leaving  Palos  in  Spain  on  his  first  voyage,  he  was  ca-rried 
southwestward  by  the  winds  to  one  of  the  West  Indies,  a  point  much 
farther  south  than  Spain  itself.  Find  on  a  globe  the  point  on  our 
coast  that  is  about  as  far  north  as  Madrid. 

The  section  reached  by  the  Spaniards  had  a  climate  similar  to  that 
of  their  own  country,  and  they  easily  made  themselves  at  home  there 
and  soon  came  into  possession  of  most  of  South  America,  Central 
America,  Mexico,  and  southwestern  United  States.  They  had  one 
advantage  over  the  English  and  French  who  settled  farther  north  : 
the  portion  of  the  continent  that  they  discovered  is  so  narrow  that 
they  easily  crossed  it,  and  thus  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  exploring  the 
Pacific  coast  also.  It  was  because  of  this  fact  that  the  Spanish  race 
settled  the  western  coast  as  far  north  as  San  Francisco. 

After  robbing  the  Aztecs  of  immense  quantities  of  gold  and  silver,  the 
Spanish  converted  the  natives  to  Christianity,  and  introduced  many  Span- 
ish laws  and  customs.  They  cruelly  mistreated  the  natives,  killing  many 
and  enslaving  others,  and  forcing  them  to  work  in  the  mines  and  fields. 
While  the  invaders  were  able  to  conquer  the  semi-civilized  Aztecs  and  the 
barbarians  of  the  islands,  they  made  very  little  progress  in  subduing  the 
more  savage  tribes.  To  this  day,  in  fact,  there  are  tribes  of  Indians  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America  that  have  never  been  conquered. 

The  French.  —  The  French  began  their  settlements  in  a  very  dif- 
ferent quarter,  being  first  attracted  to  our  coast  by  the  excellent  fish- 
ing on  the  Newfoundland  banks.  Soon  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians 
proved  profitable,  and  the  French  took  possession  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  region  along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  value  of  the  fur  trade,  and  a  desire  to  convert  the  Indians 
to  Christianity,  led  the  French  far  into  Wisconsin  and  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Making  their  way  southward  to  the 
mouth  of  that  river,  they  took  possession  of  the  whole  Mississippi 
Valley  (Fig.  30),  and  called  it  Louisiana  in  honor  of  their  great 
king,  Louis  XIV.  In  order  to  hold  this  vast  territory,  they  estab- 
lished a  chain  of  trading  posts  and  forts  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  forts 
stood  where  Pittsburg  now  stands. 

What  special  advantage  had  the  French  for  reaching  so  much  of  the 
interior  of  the  continent  ?    Why  should  they  not  have  proceeded  westward 


84 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


to  the  Pacific  ?  Many  places  in  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  valleys 
still  preserve  French  names,  as  Lake  Champlain,  Marquette  in  Michigan, 
La  Salle  in  Illinois,  St.  Louis,  and  New  Orleans. 

The  English.  —  The  Spanish  and  French  left  only  a  narrow  strip 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  for  other  nations.  Among  those  who 
attempted  settlements  were  the  Dutch  in  New  York  and  the  Swedes 
in  Delaware.  But  the  English,  settling  at  various  points  along  the 
coast,  soon  obtained  the  lead.  They  captured  New  York  City  (then 
called  New  Amsterdam)  from  the  Dutch,  and  extended  their  settle- 
ments along  most  of  the  coast  from  Florida  to  Nova  Scotia. 

In  several  respects  the  portion  that  fell  to  the  English  seemed 
much  less  desirable  than  that  held  by  the  Spanish  and  French;  yet 
the  English-speaking  race  has  managed,  not  only  to  retain  this,  but 
to  add  to  it  most  of  the  possessions  of  the  other  two.  At  the  pres- 
ent time,  the  control  of  the  entire  continent,  with  the  exception  of 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  a  few  small  islands,  is  in  the  hands 
of  either  the  United  States  or  Great  Britain. 


There  are,  of  course,  good  reasons  for  this  strange  result.  No  doubt 
original  differences  between  these  three  races  is  one  cause ;  but  there  are 
others  also.     In  the  case  of  the  Spanish,  the  climate  has  been  one  factor ; 

for  in  a  large  part  of  their 
territory  the  weather  is  too 
warm  to  produce  energetic 
people.  In  very  cold  coun- 
tries, as  in  the  land  of  the 
Eskimos,  so  much  labor  is 
required  in  merely  obtaining 
food  and  shelter,  that  little 
time  and  strength  are  left  for 
general  improvement.  The 
struggle  is  too  severe  to 
allow  progress. 

In  warm  countries,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  same  effect 
is  produced,  but  in  the  op- 
posite way.  So  little  energy 
is  required  to  find  sufiicient 


Map  showing  the  claims  of  France,  England,  and  Spain 
upon  the  territory  of  central  North  America  in  1760. 


food  that  the  people  do  not  need  to  exert  themselves,  and  hence  do  not. 
By  taking  a  few  steps,  the  Central  American  can  find  bananas  and  other 
nourishing  food  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year ;  why  then  should  he 
work  ?  The  people,  therefore,  lose  the  inclination  to  bestir  themselves, 
or,  in  other  words,  become  too  lazy  to  improve  their  condition. 


PEOPLES 


86 


\ 


Another  reason  why  the  Spaniards  have  not  developed  is  found  in 
their  relation  to  the  Indians.  Although  robbing  and  enslaving  them,  they 
at  the  same  time  married  them  freely,  so  that,  in  time,  half-breeds  have 
come  to  make  up  more  than  half  the  population.  These  half-breeds 
are  an  ignorant  class,  far  inferior  to  the  Spaniards  themselves,  and 
so  backward  (Fig.  31)  that  they  still  follow  many  of  the  customs  of 
the  Aztecs. 

The  French  likewise  intermarried  with  the  Indians  and  adopted  some 
of  their  customs.  Their  climate  was,  on  the  whale,  more  favorable  than 
that  of  the  Spanish. 

As  for  the  English,  the  temperate  climate  of  their  section  is  the  best 
in  the  world  for  the  development  of  energy.     The  warm  summers  allowed 


Fig.  31. 
A  primitive  Mexican  cart  with  wooden  wheels. 

abundant  harvests ;  but  the  long,  cold  winters  forced  the  settlers  to  ex* 
ert  themselves  to  store  supplies  for  the  cold  season.  Since  it  required 
only  a  reasonable  amount  of  labor  to  obtain  the  necessities  of  life,  time 
and  energy  were  still  left  for  improvement. 

In  their  treatment  of  the  Indians,"  the  English  and  French  were  less 
cruel  than  the  Spaniards  ;  but  unlike  both  French  and  Spanish,  the  Eng- 
glish  would  not  intermarry  with  savages.  Consequently,  in  the  wars  with 
the  French,  the  English  were  not  hampered  by  great  numbers  of  half- 
civilized  persons,  and  could  act  with  more  intelligence,  speed,  and  force. 
Their  relation  to  the  Indians,  however,  placed  them  at  a  disadvantage  in 
one  respect;  for,  during  the  fights  with  the  French,  a  majority  of  the 
Indians  were  enemies  of  the  English. 

The  fact  that  the  English  were  hemmed  in  by  forest-covered  moun- 
tains on  the  west,  and  by  the  French  and  Spanish  on  the  north  and  south, 


S6 


NOBTH  AMERIOA 


also  proved   awi  advantage;  for  on  that  account  they  were  kept  elose 
together,  and  were  easily  able  to  combine  their  forces  when  wars  arose. 

These  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  the  English-speaking  race  has  won 
its  way  on  the  continent  against  both  Spanish  and  French.  Spain  has 
steadily  lost  ground,  having  given  up  Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States  and 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  Cuba ;  and  France  has  had  no  claim 
upon  the  continent  since  1803.  The  Spanish  race  still  occupies  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  while  French  is  even  now  spoken  by  many  people  in 
New  Orleans,  Quebec,  and  Montreal. 

Westward  Migration.  —  After  the  Revolutionary  War,  by  which 
the  Thirteen  Colonies  gained  their  independence  from  Great  Britain, 
an  active  westward  movement  began.  For  a  long  time  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  had  stemmed  the  tide  of  migration  (Fig.  32).  But 
at  last  numbers  of  pioneers  found  their  way,  along  the  river  valleys, 
to  the  other  side  of  these  mountains.  There  they  discovered  fertile 
plains,  free  from  rocks  and  woods,  and   ready  for  the  plow  ;  and 

their  enthusiastic  reports  quickly 
drew  hundreds  of  thousands  after 
them. 

The   westward    advance    pushed 

V J.  J      /i^'^oVy*^^^^-^"'^  ^^^  frontier  line  on  and  on  until  the 

^^'.llLoH.o  ^^^^t"'""  semi-arid  plains  of   the  West  were. 

reached.  Then,  in  1848,  the  discov- 
ery of  gold  in  California  produced  a 
wave  of  excitement  that  carried  hosts 
of  adventurers  across  the  Rockies  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  After  this  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States  was 
rapidly  explored  and  settled. 

Slavery.  —  While  the  Indians  of 
the  East  were  being  killed  in  war  and 
driven  westward,  negroes  were  being 
Map  to   show  the  settled  part  of  the  brought  from  Africa.    There  are  now 

United   States   in   1790.    Notice  the    fully   eight    million   blacks  in  the 
cities  named ;  each  of  these  had  over    xt    • ,     i    o ,    i  i  •   i      •  i 

5000  inhabitants.    Which  are  now  United  States,  which  IS  nearly  one 
among  the  great  cities  of  the  country?  ninth  of  our  entire  population,  and 

What  about  Chicago  ?  ,..         .  ,,  ii-tt 

thirty  times  the  number  oi  Indians. 

Slavery  was  first  introduced  into  America  by  the  Spaniards,  who 

made  slaves  of  the  Indians.     The  first  negro  slaves  in  the  British 

colonies  were  brought  to  Virginia  in  1619.     Later  they  were  brought 

to  Massachusetts.  New  Jersey,  and  the  other  northern  colonies.     The 


Map  to  Show 

Digtribution  of  Population. 

in  1790. 

SCALE  OF  MILES. 

0  50    100    200      300 


r*^  Vo  lettlers  except  Indiuia  who  roamed  about. 
^7^  Scattered  «ettl«m«nt»,  .uch  m  fort.,  pionesr  houi 
fS^SS  FaOrly  well  settled. 

B^a  Moet  denael;  Mttled  portion.  More  than  90  peopli 
Uring  on  tiaj  iquare  mile. 

Fig.  32. 


FXOPLMa  37 

demand  for  cheap  labor  was  partly  supplied  by  criminals  sent  over 
from  England,  and  by  other  immigrants  who  gave  their  services  for 
a  few  years  in  payment  for  their  passage  across  the  sea.  Many  of 
these  were  men  and  women  of  good  character,  who  became  excellent 
citizens  of  a  new  country. 

Negro  slaves  were  brought  to  all  the  colonies,  but  they  soon 
proved  a  much  more  profitable  investment  in  the  South  than  in  the 
North.  In  New  England  the  farms  were  small,  the  products  were 
numerous,  and  their  cultivation  required  considerable  skill.  More- 
over, the  climate  was  severe  for  natives  of  tropical  Africa.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Southern  climate  was  well  suited  to  them  ;  and  the 
simple  routine  work  upon  the  great  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar,  and  rice 
plantations  was  such  as  they  could  easily  perform.  Accordingly, 
the  number  of  negroes  increased  in  the  South,  while  slavery  gradually 
disappeared  from  the  North. 

Immigrants  to  America.  —  Europe  and  Asia  have  poured  forth 
a  stream  of  immigrants  into  this  country.  Our  increase  in  popula- 
tion, from  a  little  over  three  millions  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution- 
ary War  to  over  eighty-four  millions  at  present,  has  been  largely 
due  to  this  steady  stream  from  abroad.  Nearly  every  foreign  nation 
is  represented,  and  upon  the  streets  of  our  larger  cities  may  be  heard 
the  languages  of  most  of  the  civilized  peoples  of  the  globe. 

The  greater  part  of  our  immigrants  have  come  from  northern 
Europe,  especially  from  the  British  Isles,  Germany,  and  the  Scandi- 
navian peninsula  (see  Appendix,  p.  x)  ;  and  great  numbers  of  them 
have  settled  in  the  cities.  More  recently  a  flood  of  immigration 
from  southern  Europe  has  brought  us  less  educated  and  less  desirable 
people.  At  one  time  many  Chinese  threatened  to  come,  and  laws 
preventing  their  coming  had  to  be  passed.  We  have  laws,  also, 
excluding  paupers,  criminals,  and  laborers  who  are  brought  here  by 
contract.     To  others  the  country  is  free. 

It  has  been  our  mission  to  welcome  these  strangers,  and,  in  spite 
of  their  varying  ideas,  customs,  and  languages,  to  teach  them  the 
principles  of  a  republican  form  of  government,  to  educate  them,  and 
welding  them  into  an  harmonious  body,  to  make  them  good  citizens 
and  true  Americans.  It  is  not  strange  if  some  mistakes  have  been 
made  in  the  process.  It  is  a  task  that  no  other  nation  has  ever  per- 
formed on  so  grand  a  scale.  The  fact  that  so  few  of  the  many 
foreigners  who  settle  among  us  desire  to  return  to  their  native  lands 
is  proof  that  they  have  not  been  disappointed  in  their  expectations. 


38 


nORTH  AMERICA 


Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Of  what  importance  is  climate  ?  (2)  Why  are  there 
no  large  trees  in  the  cold  North?  (8)  Describe  the  vegetation  there.  (4)  Tell 
about  the  animals  that  live  on  the  land  there.  (5)  Why  are  there  more  animals 
in  the  sea?  (6)  What  kinds  live  there?  (7)  How  do  arid  land  plants  protect 
themselves?  (8)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  animals  living  in  the  arid  lands. 
(9)  Why  should  there  be  more  life  in  the  tropical  zone  ?  (10)  Name  some  of 
the  animals  living  there.  (11)  What  can  you  say  of  the  plants  of  the  moist  tem- 
perate zone?  (12)  Of  the  animals?  (13)  Of  the  bison?  (14)  What  cultivated 
plants  and  domesticated  animals  has  North  America  supplied? 

(15)  Describe  the  difficulties  that  the  Eskimos  encounter.  (16)  Give  some 
examples  of  Indian  names.  (17)  Describe  the  life  of  the  different  kinds  of 
Indians.  (18)  W^hat  causes  prevented  the  Indians  from  becoming  more  civilized? 
(19)  Give  a  reason  why  the  Aztecs  were  able  to  advance.  (20)  What  advantage 
did  their  location  in  southern  North  America  give  the  Spaniards?  (21)  How  did 
the  Spaniards  treat  the  Indians?  (22)  What  attracted  the  French  to  America? 
Where  did  they  settle  ?  (23)  What  other  nations  settled  in  the  East?  (24)  What 
has  been  the  fate  of  the  Spaniards  and  French  in  America  ?  (25)  Why  have  the 
English-speaking  people  come  into  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  continent? 
(26)  What  interfered  with  the  westward  migration  of  the  English  ?  (27)  How 
was  this  migration  finally  brought  about?  (28)  Tell  about  the  beginnings  of 
slavery  in  America.  (29)  Why  was  it  more  successful  in  the  South  than  in  the 
North  ?     (30)  What  is  our  mission  toward  our  immigrants  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


Fig.  F. 
Eskiisds  9f  yaska.    Notice  their  clothing,  and  implements  for  catching  fish. 


III.     LATITUDE,    LONGITUDE,    AND    STANDARD    TIME 


Latitude  and  Longitude 


I 


Need  of  a  Means  for  locating  Places.  —  In  your  study  of  geography 
you  have  doubtless  noticed  that  it  has  frequently  been  necessary  to 
refer  to  ^'nes  upon  the  earth,  such  as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  Equa- 
tor, the  Arctic  Circle,  etc.,  in  order  to  locate  certain  places  and  the 
boundaries  of  the  zones.  But  these  lines  are  far  apart,  and  there  are 
many  places  between  them  to^  which  reference  must  often  be  made. 
For  instance,  suppose  we  wished  to  state  on  what  part  of  the  earth 
London  is  situated ;  how  could  it  be  done  ?  Of  course,  by  taking  a 
long  time,  it  would  be  possible  to  describe  just  where  this  city  is; 
but  cannot  some  more  convenient  way  be  devised  ? 

The  difficulty  is  much  the  same  as  that  which  arises  in  a  large 
city,  where  there  are  thousands  of  houses. 
No  one  person  knows  who  lives  in  most 
of  them,  and  if  a  stranger  were  looking 
for  a  friend,  he  might  have  much  trouble 
in  finding  him. 

The  Streets  of  a  City.  —  In  this  case 
the  problem  may  be  solved  in  a  simple 
manner.  A  street  running  east  and 
west  may  be  selected  to  divide  the  city 
into  two  parts  (Fig.  33).  Any  place 
north  of  this  street  is  spoken  of  as  being 
on  the  north  side,  and  south  of  it  as 
being  on  the  south  side.  The  streets  to 
the  north  and  south  are  numbered  from 
this,  as  North  1st,  North  2d,  North  3d; 

and  South  1st,  South  2d,  South  3d,  and  so  on.  Then  if  a  man  says 
that  he  lives  on  North  4th  Street,  one  knows  immediately  that  he 
lives  on  the  north  side,  and  that  his  house  is  on  the  fourth  street 
from  this  central  one. 

But  a  city  also  extends  a  long  distance  east  and  west,  and  we 
need  to  know  on  what  part  of  4th  Street  this  house  is  to  be  found. 

SO 


jnpQDnnc. 
:]nngiann[ 

XfODDODC 

Sr      „         WASHINGTON     AV£. ' 

XJCKQODC 


Fig.  33. 

Map  of  a  part  of  a  city,  to  illus- 
trate the  need  of  naming 
streets. 


40  NORTH   AMERICA 

To  answer  that  question,  another  street  running  north  and  south,  and 
crossing  the  east  and  west  ones,  may  be  selected  to  divide  the  city 
into  east  and  west  parts.  The  streets  on  the  two  sides  are  numbered 
from  this  one,  as  East  1st,  East  2d,  West  1st,  West  2d,  etc.  (Fig.  33). 
Then  if  a  man  lives  on  the  corner  of  North  4th  and  East  3d 
streets,  one  knows  not  only  that  his  home  is  north  of  a  certain  line, 
but  east  of  another  line.  If  the  blocks,  or  the  space  between  any 
two  streets,  are  always  the  same,  it  will  also  be  easy  to  tell  the  dis- 
tance from  each  of  the  central  streets  to  the  house. 

This  plan  is  not  necessary  in  small  towns  and  villages,  because  the 
people  there  know  one  another,  and  are  able  to  direct  stran^  3rs  easily. 
Few,  if  any,  cities  follow  exactly  the  scheme  here  given ;  but  many  have  a 
system  of  naming  or  numbering  streets  somewhat  similar  to  this. 

If  you  live  in  a  large  city,  perhaps  you  can  tell  just  how  your  streets 
are  named  or  numbered. 

Distance  North  and  South  of  the  Equator  (^Latitude').  —  Places 
upon  a  globe  are  located  in  much  the  same  manner.  For  example, 
the  equator,  which  extends  around  the  earth  midway  between  the 
poles,  corresponds  to  the  dividing  street  running  east  and  west. 
The  distance  between  the  equator  and  the  poles,  on  either  side,  is 
divided  into  ninety  parts  (Fig.  34),  corresponding,  we  might  say,  to 
the  blocks  in  a  city.  These,  however,  are  each  about  sixty-nine 
miles  wide  and  are  called  degrees^  marked  with  the  sign  °. 

In  making  maps  people  think  of  a  line,  or  a  circle,  extending 
around  the  earth  sixty-nine  miles  north  of  the  equator,  and  called  a 
cirele  of  latitude.  Any  point  upon  it  is  one  degree  (1°)  north  of  the 
•equator,  or  1°  North  Latitude  (abbreviated  to  N.  Lat.).  Similar 
lines  are  imagined  2°,  3°,  and  so  on  up  to  90°,  or  to  the  north  pole. 

Since  all  points  on  any  one  of  these  circles  are  the  same  distance 
from  the  equator,  and  from  the  other  circles  of  latitude,  the  lines  are 
parallel ;  and  on  that  account  they  are  called  parallels  of  latitude. 
See  a  globe. 

The  same  plan  is  followed  on  the  south  side,  places  in  that  hemi- 
sphere being  in  South  Latitude  (S.  Lat.). 

If  one  finds  that  a  certain  place  is  on  the  8th,  or  the  50th,  or  some 
other  parallel  north  of  the  equator,  he  knows  how  far  it  is  north  of 
the  equator.  San  Francisco  is  close  to  the  38th  parallel,  Chicago  close 
to  the  42d,  and  St.  Paul  on  the  45th  (Figs.  104  and  131).  Know- 
ing this,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  Chicago  is  4°,  or  about  two  hun- 
dred and  seventy-six  miles,  farther  north  than  San  Francisco,  while 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE 


41 


MorthPol*' 


St.    Paul   is   3°,  or   over   two   hundred   miles,  farther   north   than 
Chicago. 

From  this  it  is  evident  that  we  can  easily  find  the  latitude  of  a 
given  place  by  the  help  of  these 
parallels,  for  latitude  is  the  distance 
north  or  south  of  the  equator. 

Of  course  there  are  no  marks  upon 
the  earth  to  show  where  these  lines  run, 
hut  they  are  of  great  use  07i  maps, 
because  they  help  us  to  locate  places. 
Small  maps  and  globes  cannot  well 
show  the  entire  ninety  parallels  on  each 
side  of  the  equator,  so  that  usually  only 
every  fifth  or  tenth  one  is  drawn.  Ex- 
amine some  maps  (such  as  Figs.  42  and 
104),  to  see  which  ones  are  given.  Near 
what  parallel  do  you  live  ? 


zoPS.urf. 
23A'Sl.«ff. 


South  Pol*  jL 


Fig.  34. 


The  globe,  showing  the  two  hemispheres 
and  some  of  the  circles  of  latitude. 


East  and  West  Distances  on  the 
Earth  (  Longitude  ^ ).  —  But  how 
about  distance  east  and  west?  It  is  about  twenty-five  thousand 
miles  around  the  earth  at  the  equator,  and  some  means  must  be 
found  for  telling  on  the  map  how  far  places  are  from  each  other  in 
these  directions. 

Imaginary  lines  are  used  for  this  purpose,  as  before;  but  this 
time  they  extend  north  and  south  from  pole  to  pole  (Fig.  35),  and 
are  called  meridians^  or  lines  of  longitude.  In  the  case  of  the  city  it 
makes  little  difference  what  north  and  south  street  is  chosen  from 
which  to  number  the  others.  It  is  only  necessary  that  a  certain 
one  be  agreed  upon. 

It  is  the  same  with  these  meridians.  No  one  is  especially  im- 
portant, as  the  equator  is,  and  consequently  different  nations  have 
selected  different  lines  to  start  from.  In  France  the  meridian 
extending  through  Paris  is  chosen,  in  England  that  through  Green- 
wich near  London,  and  in  America  the  one  passing  through  Wash- 
ington is  sometimes  used.  But  it  is  important  that  all  people  agree 
on  some  one,  so  that  all  maps  may  be  made  alike.  On  that  account 
many  countries  start  their  numbering  with  the  meridian  which  passes 
through  Greenwich.     The  maps  in  this  book-  follow  that  plan. 

1  The  ancients  thought  that  the  world  extended  farther  in  an  east  and  west  than  in 
a  north  and  south  direction.  Therefore  they  called  the  east  and  west,  or  long  direction, 
longitude  ;  the  north  and  south  direction,  latitude. 

»— AO 


42 


NORTH   AMEBIC  A 


In  Greenwich  is  a  building,  called  an  observatory,  in  which  there  is  a 
telescope  for  the  study  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.     As  these  heavenly 

bodies  are  of  great  help  in  finding 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  places, 
Greenwich  seemed  to  the  English  a 
fitting  place  from  which  to  begin 
numbering  their  meridians. 

Comraencing  with  this  meridian 

as  0°  longitude,  people  measure  off 

degrees  both  east   and  west  of   it, 

and    think   of    lines   as    extending 

north  and  south  toward  the  poles, 

as   they  do   of    circles   of   latitude 

running  parallel  to  the  equator. 

The  earth,  cut  in  halves  along  the  Green-    Xhus   there   is  a   meridian   1°   west, 

wich  meridian,  showing  some  of  the  .         ^^  ^u*    j    oo       4.  r^    ' 

meridians.   The  meridian  20°  is  usually     another  A  ,  a  third   6  ,  etc.       LrOing 

considered  the  dividing  line  between    eastward,  they  number  1°,  2°,  3°  in 

the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres. 

the  same  way. 
Any  place  on  the  3d  meridian  west  of  Greenwich  is  said  to  be  in 
3°  West  Longitude {W .  Long.);  if  on  the  60th  meridian,  60°  W.  Long. 
Any  place  on  the  20th  meridian  east  of  Greenwich  is  in  20°  East 
Longitude  (E.  Long.-).     New  York  ^^^^^ 

is  74°  W.  Long.,  while  San  Fran-  ^ei^?g^^T??T^^^^ 

Cisco  is  about  123°  W.  Long. 


Fig.  35. 


The  180th  meridian  is  a  continua- 
tion, on  the  other  side  of  the  earth, 
of  the  Greenwich  or  zero  meridian 
(Fig.  36),  and  the  two  together  make 
a  complete  circle.  Hence  we  may 
speak  of  circles  of  longitude  as  well  as 
cireles  of  latitude.  Why  must  the 
meridian  marked  180°  E.  Long,  be  the 
same  as  the  one  marked  180°  W. 
Long.?  Which  meridian  passes  near 
New  York  ?     Denver  ? 

If  a  large  map  is  made  of  a  small 
part  of  the  earth,  the  circles  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude  are  too  f-ar  apart 
to  be  of  much  use.  Therefore,  it  is 
customary  to  divide  each  degree  into 
sixty  parts  called  minutes,  just  as  each  hour  is  divided  into  sixty  parts. 
Each  minute  of  latitude  and  longitude  is  divided  into  sixty  parts  calleci 


A  view  looking  down  on  the  north  pole, 
to  show  how  the  meridians  come  to  a 
point  at  the  north  pole.  Notice  that  if 
the  0°  meridian  were  continued  it  would 
unite  with  the  meridian  180°. 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE 


43 


seconds,  as  each  minute  of  time  is  divided  into  sixty  seconds.  The  sign 
for  a  degree  is  ° ;  for  a  minute  ' ;  for  a  second  ".  Thus  60  degrees,  40 
minutes,  and  20  seconds  north  latitude  is  marked  60°  40'  20"  N.  Lat. 
Examine  some  wall-map  of  a  small  section  to  find  these  signs. 

Knowing  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  any  place,  it  can,  by  the 
aid  of  a  map,  be  as  easily  located  as  a  house  in  a  great  city.  For 
instance,  Denver  is  about  40°  N.  Lat.  and  105°  W.  Long.  It  is 
therefore  far  to  the  north  and  west  of  New  Orleans,  which  is  about 
30°  N.  Lat.  and  90°  W.  Long. 


Find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  some  of  the  large  cities  on  the 
map  (Fig.  44).  Notice  also  that  only  every  fifth  meridian  is  marked. 
Compare  this  with  the  map  of  New  England  (Fig.  47).  Since  this  map 
represents  a  smaller  section,  more  meridians  can  be  drawn  upon  it. 

The  circles  of  latitude  are  parallel  to  the  equator  and  to  each  other, 
as  you  can  prove  by  measuring  the  distance  between  them  on  a  globe. 
But  the  meridians  cannot  be  parallel  on  a  globe,  since  they  start  from  the 
poles  and  spread  farther  and  farther  apart  until  the  equator  is  reached. 
Examine  some  of  the  maps  in  this  book  to  see  that  the  meridians  are  not 
parallel,  while  the  lines  of  latitude  are. 

You  can  see  how  this  is  by  taking  the  peeling  from  an  orange  (Fig.  37). 
The  edges  of  each  of  the  quarters  spread  far  apart  in  the  middle,  or  equa- 
tor, but  come  together  at  the  ends,  or 
poles,  of  the  orange. 

A  degree  of  longitude  is  a  little 
over  sixty-nine  miles  at  the  equator ; 
but  it  decreases  more  and  more  as  the 
poles  are  approached,  until  at  the 
poles  it  is  nothing,  because  all  the 
meridians  meet  there  at  one  point. 
Examine  Figure  36  or,  better  still,  a 
globe,  to  see  that  this  must  be  true. 

How  a  degree  of  latitude  happens 
to  be  slightly  more  than  69  miles  is 
easily  understood.  The  length  of  a 
circle  extending  around  the  earth 
through  the  poles  is  about  25,000 
miles;  and  this  distance  is  thought 
of  as  being  divided    into  360  equal 

parts  or  degrees,  that  being  a  number  that  is  exactly  divisible  by  2,  3, 4,  5, 
6,  8,  9,  and  still  other  numbers.     Divide  25,000  by  360. 

Keeping  in  mind  the  number  360,  you  can  understand  why  the  dis- 
tance from  the  equator  to  either  pole  is  90°,  for  that  is  one  fourth  of  the 
entire  distance.     How  many  miles  in  90°? 

You  can  now  find  the  width  of  the  five  zones  (Fig,  244).     The  tropi- 


FiG.  37. 

An  orange  with  a  part  of  the  peeling  re- 
moved to  show  how  the  lines  converge 
toward  the  poles,  as  the  meridians  con- 
verge on  the  globe. 


44 


NORTH    AMERICA 


cal  zone  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  each  of  which  is  23^°  from  the  equator. 
The  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  are  likewise  23|°  from  the  poles. 
Give  the  width  of  each  of  the  zones  in  degrees  of  latitude.  In  miles. 
What  is  the  greatest  width  of  the  United  States  in  degrees  of  latitude  ? 
In  miles  ?  How  far  is  the  southern  extremity  of  Florida  from  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  ?     How  far  is  New  Orleans  from  that  tropic  ? 


Standard  Time 

If  you  were  to  travel  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  you  would 
find  on  arriving  that  your  watch  was  three  hours  too  fast.  The  reason 
is  that  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  from  west  to  east,  causes  the  sun's 


STANDARD  TIME  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Fig.  38. 
To  show  the  standard  time  belts  of  the  United  States. 

rays  to  fall  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  more  than  three  hours  sooner 
than  upon  the  Pacific,  so  that  when  it  is  noon  in  New  York,  it  is 
about  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  at  San  Francisco. 

Measuring  from  east  to  west,  every  place  has  a  different  time  by 
the  sun,  and  some  years  ago  each  city  had  its  own  sun  or  solar  time. 
But  when  railways  were  built,  connecting  many  places,  these  differ^ 
ences  became  a  source  of  constant  annoyance  to  the  traveler,  foi 
Ms  watch  showed  the  time  of  only  one  place. 


STANDARD   TIME  46 

In  order  to  avoid  this  trouble  our  continent  has  been  divided 
into  belts,  in  each  of  which  the  railways,  and  most  of  the  towns, 
have  the  same  time.  Since  this  time  is  the  standard  for  all^  these 
belts  are  called  the  Standard  Time  Belts,  The  Colonial  Belt  includes 
the  provinces  of  Eastern  Canada;  that  next  west  of  it,  which  includes 
New  England,  New  York,  and  some  of  the  other  Eastern  States,  is 
called  the  Eastern  Time  Belt.     What  are  the  others  ?     (Fig.  38.) 

In  traveling  across  the  country  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco, 
one  starts  with  his  watch  set  at  the  standard  time  for  the  Eastern 
Time  Belt.  After  a  while  he  comes  to  a  place  where  the  time 
changes  one  full  hour  ;  then  he  has  Central  Time.  Going  still 
farther  west  to  the  Mountain  Belt,  the  watch  is  again  set  back 
one  full  hour  ;  what  is  done  when  the  Pacific  Belt  is  reached  ? 
In  this  way,  only  a  few  changes  of  the  watch  have  to  be  made. 

Our  study  of  longitude  helps  us  to  understand  what  determines 
the  places  for  changing  this  time.  When  it  is  noon  at  a  certain  point 
on  a  meridian,  it  is  noon  at  every  other  point  on  that  meridian. ^ 

The  earth  makes  one  complete  rotation  every  24  hours,  so  that 
the  sun  reaches  each  of  the  360  meridians  in  the  course  of  the  day 
of  24  hours.  Dividing  360  by  24  gives  15 ;  that  is  the  number  of 
meridians  that  the  sun  passes  over  in  a  single  hour.  Therefore,  if 
in  one  place,  as  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  75th  meridian,  it  is  noon,  it 
will  be  noon  one  hour  later  at  all  points  just  15"^  west  of  this,  or  on 
the  90th  meridian. 

This  explains  what  has  determined  the  boundary  lines  of  the 
time  belts.  The  time  selected  for  the  Eastern  Belt  is  that  of  the 
75th  meridian;  for  the  Central  Belt,  that  of  the  90th  meridian, 
which  is  just  one  hour  later.  What  meridian  is  selected  for  the 
Mountain  Belt?  (Fig.  38.)  For  the  Pacific  Belt?  Each  of  these 
meridians  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  belt  whose  time  it  fixes, 
so  that  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Central  Time  Belt  is  halfway 
between  the  75th  and  90th  meridians,  that  is  West  Longitude  82J° ; 
and  the  western  boundary  is  halfway  between  the  90th  and  105th 
meridians,  or  97|-°  West  Longitude. 

In  reality  the  railways  do  not  change  their  time  exactly  according  to 
these  boundaries,  for  oftentimes  the  meridians  extend  through  very  unim- 

1  It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  this  does  not  apply  to  the  frigid  zone,  where  the 
sun  does  not  rise  at  all  during  a  part  of  the  year,  and  where  it  does  not  set  during 
another  part  of  the  year. 


46  NOBTH   AMBMIOA 

portant  points,  or  even  cross  the  railways  far  out  in  open  country.  Instead 
of  following  the  exact  boundaries,  they  select  well-known  places,  like 
Buffalo,  Pittsburg,  and  Atlanta,  at  which  cities  the  change  is  made  from 
Eastern  to  Central  time.  Therefore,  the  boundaries  which  represent  the 
places  where  the  railways  actually  change  their  time  are  somewhat  irregu- 
lar, and  not  always  on  the  proper  meridian  (Fig.  38). 

You  see  that  the  object  of  these  Time  Belts  is  to  save  annoyance, 
and  that/(9/-  most  places  the  standard  time  is  incorrect  time. 

In  order  that  our  system  may  accord  with  that  of  other  parts  of 
the  world,  the  time  of  the  Greenwich  meridian  is  taken  as  a  basis. 
Thus  the  whole  world  may  be  divided  into  standard  time  belts,  with 
a  change  of  an  hour  at  every  fifteenth  meridian. 

Questions.  —  (1)  How  may  an  east  and  west  street  be  used  in  a  city  to  locate 
houses?  (2)  How  may  a  north  and  south  street  be  so  used?  (3)  Make  a  plan  of 
a  city  showing  two  central  streets  and  others  numbered  from  them.  (4)  What 
corresponds  to  the  central  east  and  west  street  in  locating  places  upon  the  globe  ? 

(5)  Into  how  many  parts  is  the  distance  between  the  equator  and  each  pole  divided  ? 

(6)  What  is  each  of  them  called?  (7)  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  a  place  is  in 
1°  N.  Lat.  ?  (8)  How  far  apart  are  the  circles  of  latitude  ?  (9)  Why  are  these 
circles  called  parallels?  (10)  What  is  S.  Lat.?  (11)  What  is  a  meridian? 
(12)  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  them  upon  maps?  (13)  Which  meridian  is 
most  commonly  chosen  as  zero?  Why  that  one?  (14)  How  high  do  the  num- 
bers of  the  meridians  run?  (Fig.  36.)  (15)  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  a 
place  is  in  3°  E.  Long.?  In  90°  W.  Long.?  (16)  What  is  meant  by  circles  of 
longitude?  (17)  What  subdivisions  of  a  degree  are  there?  Why  are  they 
necessary?  (18)  Show  that  meridians  are  not  parallel.  (19)  What  is  the  length 
of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  equator?  (20)  Show  how  a  degree  of  latitude 
happens  to  be  about  69  miles.  (21)  Explain  why  the  time  is  continually  changing 
as  one  goes  west.  As  he  goes  east.  (22)  How  has  this  caused  annoyance  in 
traveling?  (23)  What  remedy  has  been  found?  (24)  What  are  the  names  of 
the  Standard  Time  Belts  in  the  United  States  ?  (25)  What  is  the  difference  in  time 
between  the  belts?  (26)  Which  meridians  are  used  to  fix  the  boundaries?  Why 
these?  (27)  Show  the  boundaries  on  the  map  (Fig.  38).  (28)  Why  is  standard 
time  really  incorrect  for  most  places? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Find  how  the  streets  of  Washington  have  been  numbered 
and  lettered.  (2)  What  is  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  Boston  ?  Of  Washing- 
ton? Of  Chicago  ?  Of  your  nearest  large  city?  (3)  Find  some  cities  that  are  on 
or  near  the  42d  parallel  of  latitude.  (4)  What  place  is  in  25°  N.  Lat.  and  81°  W. 
Long.  ?  Near  40°  N.  Lat.  and  75°  W.  Long.  ?  (5)  Make  a  drawing  showing  sev- 
eral of  the  meridians.  (6)  Find  places  that  have  nearly  the  same  latitude  as  your 
home.  (7)  Where  and  how  much  would  you  change  your  watch  in  traveling 
from  San  Francisco  to  Chicago?  (8)  What  is  the  difference  in  time  between 
Baltimore  and  Denver?  (9)  Examine  some  railway  time  tables  to  see  how  they 
indicate  the  changes  in  time.  (10)  What  is  the  difference  where  you  live  between 
Standard  Time  and  solar  time?  (11)  Show  on  a  globe  or  map  where  a  ship 
would  be  in  the  Atlantic  when  in  zero  latitude  and  longitude. 


IV.     UNITED   STATES 


The  continent  of  North  America  is  under  the  control  of  different 
nations.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  is  a  British  colony,  as  are  New- 
foundland, Labrador,  and  some  of  the  islands  south  of  the  United 
States.  Name  them.  Greenland  and  Iceland  are  Danish  colonies ; 
but  the  countries  of  Central  America,  Mexico,  and  the  United  States 
are  independent  nations.  The  United  States  also  includes  Alaska, 
the  island  of  Porto  Rico, 
the  Philippines,  Hawaii, 
and  other  islands  of  the 
Pacific.  In  addition  to 
this,  Cuba  is  under  our 
protection.  What  is  the 
name  of  the  group  of 
islands  to  which  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico  belong? 

Our  country  is  so  large, 
and  so  different  in  the 
various  parts,  that  in  order 
to  study  it  in  detail  we 
must  divide  it  into  sec- 
tions. The  state  boun- 
daries might  serve  as  a 
means  of  thus  dividing  the 
country;  but  there  are  far 
too  many  of  them.  How 
many  states  are  there  ? 
Draw  a  sketch  map  of 
the  country,  and  place  upon  it  the  important  rivers  and  mountains. 

In  studying  the  states  it  is  convenient  to  group  them  into  five 
sections,  of  which  the  first  is  the  New  England  group.  As  you 
study  each  of  these  sections,  a  very  important  point  to  notice  is  the 
scale  upon  which  the  map  is  drawn.  For  example,  in  Figure  47 
observe  that  a  line  slightly  less  than  two  inches  long  represents  a 
distance  of  100  miles.  According  to  that  scale,  how  long  is  the  state 
of  Connecticut  ?  According  to  the  scale  in  Figure  60,  what  is  the 
distance  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  ?  Compare  the  latter  distance 
with  that  from  New  York  to  Boston.  It  is  thus  always  important 
to  note  the  scale  of  any  map  that  you  use,  whether  it  be  one  in  this 
book,  a  wall  map,  or  a  map  on  an  atlas. 


Fig.  39. 


These  pictures  illustrate  lumbering.    The  upper  picture  shows  logging  camp.    The  lower  pic- 
ture shows  logs  being  drawn  to  the  frozen  stream. 


Fig.  41. 

St.  Johnsbury^  Vt.    A  typical  view  in  hilly  New  England,  showing  the  irregular  topography 
and  the  large  percentage  of  wooded  surface. 


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Fia.  42. 

Map  Questions.  —This  map  and  the  relief  map  (Fig.  10)  show  the  great  Western 
highlands,  the  lower  highland  region  of  the  East,  and  the  great  trough  between. 
What  are  the  names  of  the  large  rivers  that  drain  the  different  sections  ?  In  which 
direction  does  each  flow,  and  into  what  waters  does  each  empty  ?  In  what  part  are 
most  of  the  lakes  found  ?  Why  ?  Name  and  locate  each  of  the  large  peninsulas, 
islands,  bays,  gulfs,  and  seas.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  continent.  Upon  it  looat« 
the  large  cities. 


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Relief  map  of  New  England,    "describe  the  relief;  (a)  the  location  of  the  mountains,  (6)  the 
lowlands.-  (c)  the  lakes,  {d)  the  drainage,  (e)  the  nature  of  the  coast  line. 


-nUontauk  Pt.'  A      "^o 


Lnon,oy        |fEW  ENGX.AN.D 


•  NANTUCKET  I. 


STATES 

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Capitals  of  Slates  0   Oth^r  Cities  • 

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Fig.  47. 

Map  Questions.  —  (1)  Name  the  states  of  this  group.  (2)  What  is  the  capital  of  each?  (3)  Where 
are  the  mountains?  (4)  Into  wliat  bay  does  the  Penobscot  River  flow?  (5)  AVhat  large  island  just  east 
of  it?  (6)  Find  three  large  lakes.  In  which  state  is  each?  (7)  Where  are  the  largest  cities?  Why 
there  ?  (8)  What  cape  is  about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Boston  ?  (9)  What  cape  is  southeast  of  Boston  ? 
(10)  Find  Massachusetts  Bay.  (11)  Find  Cape  Cod  Bay.  (12)  What  two  large  islands  lie  south  of  Massa- 
chusetts? (13)  What  two  bays  near  them?  (14)  What  large  island  lies  south  of  Connecticut?  (16)  In 
What  state  is  it?    (SenF'g-62.)     (16)  What  waters  separate  it  from  Coanecticut ? 


Fig.  48. 

Boston  and  vicinity.    Notice  the  steamship  and  railway  lines  converging  at  Boston.    Also 

number  of  cities  near  Boston. 


V.     NEW  ENGLAND 


Physiography  and  Climate.  —  Many  facts  in  regard  to  New  Eng- 
land are  already  familiar  from  what  has  been  said  in  Section  I.  The 
sinking  of  the  coast  has  made  the  shore  line  extremely  irregular, 
thus  forming  many  fine  harbors.  The  great  glacier  from  the  north 
has  left  its  traces  everywhere.  By  damming  the  streams  and  turn- 
ing them  from  their  courses,  it  has  caused  many  lakes  (Fig.  12),  falls, 
and  rapids.  The  whole  surface  of  the  country,  with  its  bare  rock 
ledges  and  boulder-strewn  soil,  has  resulted  from  the  long-continued 
action  of  the  glacier.  For  many  years  the  edge  of  the  ice  sheet  ex- 
tended along  the  southern  margin  of  New  England  ;  and  the  moraine 
hills  and  sandy  plains  that  it  piled  up  now  cover  much  of  Cape  Cod, 
Martha's  Vineyard,  Nantucket  Island,  and  Long  Island. 

While  low  near  the  coast,  the  land  rises  rapidly  toward  the  north 
and  west,  and 
soon  becomes  a 
plateau  crossed 
by  river  valleys 
the  bottoms  of 
which  are  sev- 
eral hundred 
feet  below  the 
plateau  top. 
The  upland 
near  the  coast 
has  been  so  cut 
by  many  valleys 
that  the  surface 
is  studded  with 

low  hills.     But  in  the  west,  the  higher  upland,  known  as  the  Berk- 
shire Hills,  is  quite  mountainous. 

Other  mountains,  in  some  oases  where  the  rocks  are  hard,  rise 
above  the  plateau.  Some  of  these,  like  Mt.  Monadnock  in  southern 
New  Hampshire  (Fig.  49),  rise  singly  ;  others,  like  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  (Fig.  50),  are  in  groups  ;  and  still 


Fig.  49. 

A  view  across  the  upland  of  New  England,  with  Mt.  Monadnock 
rising  in  the  background.    Describe  this  view. 


60  NORTH   AMEBICA 

others,  such  as  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  and  the  continua- 
tion of  the  White  Mountains  across  northern  Maine,  form  irregular 
ranges.  Many  of  the  mountain  peaks  reach  from  three  thousand 
to  four  thousand  feet  above  sea-level ;  but  Mt.  Washington  in  New 
Hampshire  is  more  than  a  mile  in  height,  and  Mt.  Katahdin  in 
Maine  (Fig.  58,  p.  64)  rises  to  a  height  of  nearly  a  mile. 

New  England  is  so  far  north  that  its  climate  is  cold  in  the  north- 
ern part  and  the  snows  are  heavy.  This  coldness  is  increased  by  a 
cold  current  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  known  as  the  Labrador  current, 


^  Fig.  50.    The  Presidential  Range  in  winter,  from  the  west. 

which  makes  the  east  winds  cool  in  summer,  and  damp  and  chilly  in 
winter.  On  the  other  hand,  since  a  current  of  warm  water  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  called  the  Gulf  Stream  (Fig.  264,  p.  264),  approaches 
to  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  coast  of  southern  New  England, 
that  southern  section  has  warm  south  winds  and  little  snow  in  winter. 


The  Forests 

Cutting  the  Timber.  —  In  the  days  of  the  early  settlers  there  was 
so  much  forest  in  New  England  that  lumber  was  one  of  the  first 
products  sent  back  to  England.  Now,  where  the  soil  is  fertile, 
most  of  the  woods  have  been  cleared  away;  but  large  sections  in 
northern  Maine,  New  Hampshire  (Fig.  50),  and  Vermont,  as  well 
as  parts  of  the  three  southern  states,  are  still  covered  with  timber. 
Standing  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Katahdin  (Fig.  58),  for  instance, 
one  sees  only  a  vast  wilderness  of  trees  in  all  directions.  The  near- 
est cultivated  land  is  twenty-five  miles  to  the  east ;  but  the  forests 
stretch  much  farther  away  to  the  north  and  west. 


NEW   ENGLAND  61 

Winter  is  the  busy  season  in  this  wilderness,  for  at  that  time  men 
go  into  the  forests  to  cut  the  timber.  Lumbering  in  Maine  is 
an  interesting  occupation,  but  it  involves  so  many  hardships  that 
a  lumberman  is  said  to  become  an  old  man  after  a  few  years  of 
service. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  work  when  the  temperature  is  far  below  zero. 
The  swamps,  which  are  numerous,  and  in  summer  almost  impassable,  are 
then  frozen.  At  that  season,  also,  the  snows  have  leveled  over  the 
boulders  and  fallen  trees  so  that  heavy  sleds,  loaded  with  logs,  may  be 
drawn  through  the  woods. 

Usually  fifty  men  or  more  are  necessary  to  a  logging  camp.  With 
axes  in  hand,  they  go  through  the  woods,  cutting  all  the  trees  that  are 
large  and  sound  enough  for  good  lumber.  These  are  cut  down,  the  limbs 
chopped  off,  and  the  logs  dragged  by  horses  to  the  banks  of  the  nearest 
stream.  The  men  go  forth  early  in  the  morning  and  work  until  late  in 
the  evening,  eating  and  sleeping  in  log  cabins.  Their  beds  are  broad 
shelves  of  rough  boards  covered  with  boughs  from  the  spruce  and  balsam 
trees,  while  the  one  sleeping  room  is  usually  warmed  by  a  large  stove  in 
its  middle. 

Floating  the  Logs  to  the  Mills.  —  When  the  snow  melts  in  the 
spring,  the  cutting  is  over  and  another  busy  season  begins.  The 
logs  that  are  ready  are  whirled  away  by  the  stream  current,  now 
swollen  by  the  melting  snows  ;  but  frequently  even  this  flood  of 
water  is  not  sulBcient  to  carry  them.  To  provide  against  that 
difficulty,  dams  are  placed  across  the  streams,  or  at  the  outlet  of 
lakes,  to  store  water  for  use  when  needed.  Immense  numbers  of 
logs  are  floated,  or  "  driven,"  down  stream,  forming  what  the  lum- 
bermen call  a  "log  drive." 

The  work  of  driving  the  logs  down  stream  is  a  very  exciting  one. 
Rocks  and  shoals  often  check  them  in  their  course  ;  and,  as  soon  as  one 
gets  caught,  others  are  held  back  by  it,  so  that,  if  the  jam  is  not  speedily 
removed,  the  entire  stream  may  soon  become  blocked,  and  all  the  logs 
above  be  prevented  from  floating  down.  Such  a  condition  is  called  a  log 
jam,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  men  to  prevent  it  by  keeping  the  logs 
moving  along  in  the  river,  and  by  freeing  any  that  may  become  lodged. 
To  do  this,  they  must  often  wade  into  the  icy  water  and  ride  upon  the 
logs.  It  is  common  to  see  a  man  glide  along  on  a  single  log,  clinging 
to  it  by  means  of  the  sharp  spikes  in  his  boots,  balancing  himself  with  a 
long  pole,  and  jumping  from  log  to  log,  as  a  squirrel  springs  from  tree  to 
tree.  The  men  are  often  wet  from  head  to  foot,  and  sometimes  one  is 
thrown  into  the  water  and  drowned. 


52 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Sawmills  and  Paper-mills.  —  Some  of  the  logs  are  stopped  near 
waterfalls  far  up  stream  and  there  sawed  into  boards,  laths,  shingles, 
etc.,  but  most  of  them  are  carried  as  far  as  the  current  will  take 
them,  even  down  to  the  river  mouths.  These  places  are  natural 
sites  for  large  towns  and  cities,  because  there  the  logs  must  be  made 
into  lumber  for  the  manufacture  of  various  articles,  and  all  of  this 
requires  much  work  and  many  men. 

Where  the  current  of  the  Penobscot  will  carry  the  logs  no  far- 
ther, that  is,  where  the  ocean  tide  checks  the  river  current,  the  large 
city  of   Bangor  has  grown   up,  since  ocean  vessels  may  come  to 
this   place   to  carry  off    the    lumber.     The   drives  of   the    Kenne- 
bec and  Androscoggin  are 
stopped  at  the  sawmills  in 
several    cities   along   those 
rivers,  such  as  Watek- 
viLLE,   and    Augusta, 
the  capital  ;    but  some  are 
carried   down    as    far    as 
Bath,  which  is  noted  for 
its  ship  building.    On  the 
wharves  of  Portland,  the 
largest  city  in  Maine,  are 
quantities  of  boards  ready 
to  be   shipped  away  to  be 
made    into    boxes,   barrels, 
doors,    and   hundreds   of 
other  articles. 

Another  important  use 
of  forest  trees  is  to  make 
paper,  for  much  of  the 
paper  commonly  seen  — 
as  newspaper  and  wrapping  paper — is  now  made  of  wood.  Short  logs 
(two-foot  lengths)  after  having  the  bark  removed  are  placed  in  a 
steel  inclosure  and  forced  against  an  enormous  grindstone.  The 
pulp  thus  ground  off  is  carried  away  by  water,  run  through  a  sieve, 
deposited  on  a  wide  belt,  and  compressed  into  thin  sheets  between 
rollers.  When  dry  it  is  paper.  One  does  not  often  think  when 
reading  the  news,  or  wrapping  a  package,  that  the  paper  in  his  hands 
may  once  have  been  part  of  a  live  tree  in  the  forest,  perhaps  in  the 
woods  of  Maine.     Pulp  is  also  made  by  help  of  chemicals. 


Fig.  51. 
Lumbermen  in  the  Maine  woods. 


NEW    ENGLAND 


58 


Paper-mills,  some  using  rags  as  well  as  wood  pulp,  are  found  at 
Waterville,  Gardiner,  Westbrook,  Rumford  Falls,  Milli- 
NOCKETT,  and  other  places  in  Maine.  However,  Holyoke,  the 
greatest  paper-making  city  in  New  England,  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  other  busy  cities  in  Massachusetts.  At  Holyoke  the  pulp  is  gen- 
erally made  of  rags,  which  produce  a  finer  grade  of  paper.  The 
neighboring  cities  assure  a  large  supply  of  the  necessary  rags. 

Among  the  trees  in  the  forests  of  northern  New  England  is  one  kind 
called  the  sugai-  maple.  It  is  very  common  in  Vermont,  although  it  grows 
in  many  other  states  also,  as  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio.  Its 
sap,  unlike  that  of  most  trees,  is  sweet ;  and  if  one  bores  a  hole  through 
the  bark  in  early  spring,  when  this  liquid  is  moving  through  the  trees 
most  rapidly,  it  will  ooze  forth.  This  sap  is  boiled  to  drive  off  some  of 
the  water,  and  maple  sirup  or  maple  sugar  is  the  result. 

The  Rocks 

There  are  three  kinds  of  stone  that  are  especially  valuable  in 
New  England,  namely,  granite,  marble,  and  slate,  each  of  which  i? 
quarried  in  large  quantities. 

Granite. — Many  of  the  hills  and  even  mountains,  such  as  Mts. 
Washington  and  Katahdin,  are  almost  solely  granite  ;  but  this  is  not 
often  quarried,  because  it  is  too  difficult  to  draw  the  heavy  stone 


Fig.  52. 

Marble  quarry.    Notice  the  derricks  used  for  handling  the  heavy  blocks  of  stone. 

(Md.  Geol.  Survey.) 


54  NORTH   AMERICA 

from  the  mountains  to  places  where  it  is  needed.  The  quarries  have 
generally  been  located  close  to  cities,  or  near  the  sea  where  the  stone 
may  be  cheaply  sent  away  by  ship.  One  of  the  oldest  quarries  in 
the  country  is  at  Quincy,  near  Boston  (Fig.  47),  and  buildings  made 
of  Quincy  granite  over  two  hundred  years  ago  may  still  be  seen  in 
Boston.  Other  quarries  are  found  in  and  near  Gloucester,  Mass., 
Barre,  Vt.,  Concord,  N.H.,  and  along  the  coast  of  Maine. 

Beds  of  stone  have  seams,  called  joints,  extending  through  them.  These 
aid  greatly  in  quarrying ;  for,  in  splitting  out  large  blocks,  the  quarrymen 
need  only  to  drill  holes,  and  then,  with  gunpowder,  blast  or  break  the 
granite  from  one  joint  to  the  next.  Smaller  pieces  are  obtained  by  drilling 
holes  into  the  large  blocks  and  breaking  them  apart  by  driving  in  wedges. 

Much  of  the  granite  is  used  for  paving-stones  in  the  city  streets, 
where  heavy  wagons  are  constantly  passing.  For  that  purpose  large 
blocks  are  split  into  halves,  these  into  smaller  halves,  and  so  on  until 
the  proper  size  is  reached.  Other  large  blocks  are  loaded  into  boats 
at  the  wharf  and  carried  to  Boston,  New  York,  or  even  as  far  as  New 
Orleans,  where  they  are  used  as  curbstones,  blocks  for  buildings,  and 
for  other  purposes.  Several  of  the  government  buildings  at  Wash- 
ington are  made  of  New  England  granite. 

One  of  the  principal  uses  of  granite  is  for  monuments,  columns, 
and  other  ornamental  work.  The  stone  is  well  suited  for  this  pur- 
pose because  of  its  beautiful  color,  which  varies  in  different  quarries, 
being  gray,  almost  white,  bluish,  or  distinctly  red ;  and  most  of  it 
will  take  a  high  polish. 

Marble. — This  stone  is  so  much  softer  than  granite  that  it  may 
be  sawed  without  being  blasted.  The  most  noted  marble  quarries  in 
the  United  States  are  near  Rutland,  Vt.,  where  much  of  the  stone 
is  white,  though  some  of  it  is  streaked  with  blue.  In  other  places, 
as  in  Tennessee,  the  colors  are  different  and  often  very  beautiful. 

Marble  is  too  soft  for  paving-stones,  but  is  much  used  for  build- 
ings, statues,  and  monuments,  the  Rutland  marble  being  one  of  the 
most  common  headstones  in  the  cemeteries  of  the  East.  Like  gran- 
ite, it  may  be  given  a  high  polish.  Some  of  the  most  highly  prized 
marble,  mostly  obtained  from  foreign  countries,  is  so  banded  and 
variegated  that,  when  polished,  it  makes  a  beautiful  ornamental  stone 
for  interiors  of  cathedrals  and  public  buildings. 

White  marble  has  been  used  for  many  centuries  for  making  fine  statues ; 
in  fact,  long  before  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Greeks  built  the  marble  Parthe- 


NEW   ENGLAND  55 

non  upon  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  and  cut  marble  statues,  such  as  that  of 
the  Venus  of  Milo,  which  have  become  famous  on  account  of  their  mar- 
velous beauty. 

Slate.  —  Slate  rock  is  quarried  in  several  parts  of  New  England,  as  in 
eastern  Maine  and  western  Massachusetts  and  Vermont.  It  is  also  obtained 
in  Pennsylvania.  The  value  of  slate  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  it  splits, 
or  cleaves,  so  easily  that  it  is  readily  broken  into  thin  slabs  with  a  smooth 
surface.  In  this  way  it  is  made  into  roofing  slate  and  school  slates ;  from 
it  also  are  made  slate  pencils,  slabs  for  wash-basins,  etc. 

Fishing 

Still  another  raw  product  of  New  England  is  fish.  When  the 
country  was  first  settled,  great  numbers  of  various  kinds,  especially 
mackerel,  halibut,  and  cod,  were  found  close  to  the  shore.  Such 
names  as  Cape  Cod,  Halibut  Point,  and  Bass  Rock,  given  to  places 
on  the  coast,  indicate  this.  Find  the  first  of  these.  Province- 
town,  on  Cape  Cod,  is  still  engaged  in  the  fishing  industry. 

Fish  supplied  the  first  settlers  with  one  of  their  chief  foods,  and 
the  fishing  industry  soon  became  of  importance.  You  will  remem- 
ber (p.  33)  that  it  was  the  fishing  which  first  attracted  the  French  to 
the  American  coast ;  and  they  still  retain  the  right  to  fish  along  the 
Newfoundland  shore. 

Near  the  coast,  fish  are  now  much  less  abundant ;  but  since  they  are 
still  found  farther  from  the  shore,  hundreds  of  vessels  and  thousands  of 
men  are  engaged  in  catching  them.  Gloucester,  which  is  a  center 
for  that  industry,  is  the  greatest  fishing  port  in  the  United  States  (Fig. 
53);  but  Boston  and  Portland  also  have  an  important  fish  trade. 

Mackerel.  —  Mackerel  are  obtained  in  spring  and  summer.     They 


Fig.  53. 


A  view  in  Gloucester  harbor,  showing  the  fishing  schooners,  the  wharves  where  the  fish  are 
landed,  and  the  buildings  in  which  they  are  stored. 


W  NORTH   AMERICA 

swim  together,  and  in  such  numbers  —  in  schools^  as  fishermen  say — 
that  they  make  a  great  commotion  in  the  water.  The  fishermen,  who 
are  cruising  about  in  search  of  the  fish,  sail  in  swift,  two-masted  ves- 
sels, called  schooners.  When  they  sight  a  "  school,"  they  spring  into 
their  great  seine  boats,  drop  a  large  seine^  or  net,  into  the  water,  and 
endeavor  to  draw  it  around  the  "  school."  Then  the  seine  is  drawn 
in,  forming  a  pocket  and  entrapping  the  fish.  In  this  pocket  enough 
fish  are  sometimes  obtained  to  fill  hundreds  of  barrels.  Some  are 
sold  fresh,  others  are  salted  and  sold  as  salt  mackerel. 

Halibut  and  Codfish.  —  The  method  of  fishing  described  above  is 
similar  to  that  which  the  Disciples  of  Christ  used  in  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
But  fishing  for  halibut  and  cod  is  very  different.     This  is  carried  on 


Fig.  54. 
Vertical  section  through  a  portion  of  the  sea  illustrating  cod  fishing  by  means  of  a  trawl. 

in  winter  as  well  as  summer,  and  the  vessels  go  from  Gloucester  even 
as  far  as  Greenland  and  Iceland,  although  most  of  them  fish  on  the 
Fishing  Banks  off  the  New  England  and  Newfoundland  coasts. 

Halibut  are  very  large,  often  weighing  more  than  a  man ;  and 
they  are  often  caught  upon  single  lines.  Codfish  may  be  captured 
in  the  same  manner,  though  a  trawl  (Fig.  54)  is  more  commonly  used 
for  cod  than  for  halibut.  The  trawl  consists  of  a  number  of  hooks 
hanging  from  a  single  long  line,  all  lowered  into  the  water  together 
and  left  there  for  hours.  The  fish  bite  at  the  bait  on  the  suspended 
hooks,  and  in  this  way  many  are  caught  at  one  time. 

This  kind  of  fishing  is  dangerous  because  the  men  must  venture  out  in 
small,  flat-bottomed  boats,  called  dories,  to  take  the  fish  off  the  trawls. 


NEW   ENGLAND 


67 


While  they  are  busy  a  storm  may  arise,  or  a  heavy  fog  come  up,  and  pre- 
vent their  return  to  the  vessel.  They  are  then  left  in  open  boats  far  out 
upon  the  ocean.  Every  year  dozens  of  Gloucester  fishermen  are  lost  in 
this  manner. 

As  in  the  case  of  mackerel,  codfish  are  sold  either  fresh  or  salt.  In 
order  to  salt,  or  cure  them,  they  are  split  open  and  cleaned,  soaked  in 
barrels  of  brine,  and  then  dried  upon  the  wharf.  Sometimes  the  bones 
are  removed,  the  skin  stripped  off,  and  the  flesh  torn  into  shreds  and 
packed  into  boxes  as  boneless  cod.  Either  the  salted  or  boneless  cod  may 
be  seen  in  almost  any  grocery,  and  much  of  it  comes  from  Gloucester. 

Other  Ocean  Foods.  —  Traps,  or  weirs  (Fig.  55),  are  also  set  for  fish. 
They  are  placed  along  the  shore,  and  many  kinds  of  fish,  such  as  shad, 
salmon,  and  bass,  swim  into  them  and  are  then  unable  to  find  their  way 
out.  Lobster  fishing  is  also  carried  on,  especially  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 
A  lobster  trap,  made  of  wood  and  weighted  with  stone,  is  lowered  to  the 


Fig.  55. 
A  fish  weir  at  Bar  Harbor,  Maine.     The  large  buildings  are  summer  hotels. 


bottom,  where  the  lobster  lives,  crawling  around  among  the  rocks  and  sea- 
weed. A  fish-head  for  bait  is  inside  the  trap,  and  the  lobster  crawls  in  to 
get  it ;  but  he  is  so  stupid  that  he  is  rarely  able  to  find  his  way  out. 

Clams,  found  along  many  parts  of  the  New  England  coast,  live  buried 
in  the  mud  flats  which  are  exposed  to  view  at  low  tide.  At  such  times 
boys  and  men  dig  these  shell  fish  out,  much  as  a  farmer  digs  potatoes 
from  a  hill. 

Agriculture 

Much  of  New  England  is  hilly,  mountainous,  or  so  strewn  with 
glacial  boulders,  that  farming  is  not  so  extensive  an  industry  as  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  country.  By  no  means  all  the  food  that  is 
needed  can  be  raised  in  this  section,  much  grain  and  meat  having  to 
be  brought  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  elsewhere.  And  since 
the  southern  portion  of  New  England  is  thickly  dotted  with  cities, 
where  the  people  are  engaged  in  other  occupations,  there  is  a  ready 
market  for  whatever  food  the  farmers  can  supply. 


58 


NORTH    AMERICA 


Each  farm  usually  has  a  small  orchard  and  produces  hay  and  grain 
which  are  fed  to  cattle  and  horses,  or  sold  near  by.  All  the  farmers 
keep  a  few  hens  and  sell  the  chickens  and  eggs,  and  some  make  a 
business  of  raising  hens,  turkeys,  and  ducks.  One  of  the  occupa- 
tions of  the  farmers  is  truck  farming^  which  means  that  various  kinds 
of  vegetables,  as  tomatoes,  sweet  corn,  potatoes,  cucumbers,  cabbages, 
and  celery,  are  carefully  cultivated,  and  these,  together  with  milk 
and  eggs,  are  sent  to  the  nearest  town  to  be  sold.     The  farmer  often 


Fig.  56. 
A  view  on  a  Massachusetts  farm,  showing  some  fine  breeds  of  milch  cows. 

takes  them  himself  and  sells  them  from  house  to  house,  thus  securing 
higher  prices  than  if  he  sold  them  to  a  storekeeper.     Why  ? 

Strangers  traveling  through  New  England,  upon  seeing  the  hilly 
surface  and  rocky  soil,  are  often  puzzled  to  understand  how,  from 
such  small  farms,  the  owners  can  earn  enough  to  build  such  large 
houses  and  barns,  to  furnish  their  homes  so  well,  and  to  have  so 
many  books  and  pictures.  But  the  excellent  markets  in  the  cities 
near  at  hand  afford  the  explanation. 

Where  the  farms  are  so  far  away  from  the  cities  that  it  is  impossible 
to  drive  to  them,  the  profits  are  less ;  but  special  arrangements  are  made 
for  the  marketing  of  milk.  So  much  of  this  is  needed  in  the  large  cities 
that  special  cars,  carrying  nothing  but  cans  of  milk,  are  run  from  far  out 
in  the  country.  Also  a  great  deal  of  milk  is  made  into  butter  and  cheese, 
sometimes  on  the  farm,  but  much  more  commonly  at  factories,  or  cream- 
eries, where  the  work  is  done  by  machinery. 

In  some  parts  of  New  England,  where  the  soil  is  very  poor  and  no 
market  is  near,  farming  has  been  so  unsuccessful  that  many  farms  have 
been  abandoned,  orchards  are  grown  up  with  weeds,  and  houses  and  barns 
are  tumbling  down.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  more  hilly  parts  of 
Kew  England. 


NEW   ENGLAND 


59 


Manufacturing 

When  the  Puritans  settled  New  England  it  was  very  expensive 
to  bring  from  over  the  sea  the  articles  that  they  needed.  Neverthe- 
less, at  first  they  imported  not  only  furniture  and  tools,  but  even 
wood  for  the  interior  of  houses  and  bricks  for  the  walls,  fireplaces, 
and  chimneys.  Even  now,  in  some  of  the  older  New  England  build- 
ings, one  sees  doors  and  rafters  that  came  from  across  the  ocean 
many  generations  ago. 

Very  soon,  however,  the  settlers  began  to  make  for  themselves 
such  articles  as  shoes,  cloth,  and  lumber.  Thus  manufacturing 
began  early  in  this  region,  and  the  industry  was  greatly  aided  by  the 
water  power,  caused  by  the 
glacier.  It  was  also  aided 
by  the  many  lakes.  These 
serve  as  reservoirs  from 
which,  even  during  times 
of  drought,  a  steady  sup- 
ply of  water  is  secured  for 
the  falls  and  rapids. 

Many  mills  and  facto- 
ries sprang  up  near  the 
coast,  and  later  in  the  in- 
terior, and  thus  New  Eng- 
land soon  became  the  prin- 
cipal manufacturing  sec- 
tion of  the  whole  country. 
Its  many  large  cities  owe 
their  existence  chiefly  to 
this  industry.  Hundreds 
of  articles  are  made,  those 
composed  of  cotton,  wool, 
leather,  and  metal 
being  the  most  important. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  this  should  be  the  case,  since  none  of 
these  raw  materials  are  extensively  produced  in  New  England.  But 
the  abundant  waterfalls  furnished  such  excellent  power  that  it  paid 
to  bring  the  raw  materials  there  to  be  manufactured.  Therefore 
chiefly  on  account  of  its  water  power,  manufacturing  developed  in 
New  England ;  and  the  people  learned  the  art  so  well  that  factories 
were  later  built,  even  where  there  was  no  water  power.     This  is  true 


Fig.  57. 

A  waterfall  that  supplies  power  to  some  factories  in 
one  of  the  smaller  manufacturing  towns  of  New 
England. 


60  NOBTH   AMERICA 

in  Boston,  for  instance,  where  steam  power  is  used.  Nowadays  the 
location  of  a  mill  near  an  important  railway,  or  near  some  other  good 
shipping  point,  is  a  more  important  matter  than  its  location  near 
water  power. 

Cotton  Manufacturing. —  There  are  about  four  hundred  cotton 
mills  in  New  England,  making  such  articles  as  sheets,  towels,  stock- 
ings, underwear,  thread,  string,  handkerchiefs,  and  gingham  and 
calico  dress  goods.  As  many  as  twelve  hundred  persons  are  fre- 
quently employed  in  a  single  mill.  Of  this  number  perhaps  three 
quarters  are  women,  and  they  may  use  from  sixty  thousand  to  seventy 
thousand  pounds  of  cotton  per  day.  Most  of  the  cotton  is  brought 
from  Texas  and  other  Southern  States ;  but  some  of  it  comes  from 
Egypt  and  other  foreign  countries. 

The  cotton  arrives  in  bales,  weighing  about  five  hundred  pounds  each, 
and  is  made  into  cloth  by  machinery  in  the  following  manner :  First  the 
dirt,  small  sticks,  etc.,  are  removed.  Then  the  cotton  fibers  of  various 
lengths  are  combed  out  straight  and  well  mixed  with  one  another.  After 
that  they  are  pressed  into  thin,  gauze-like  sheets.  These  are  gradually 
drawn  and  twisted  into  threads,  and  then  wound  upon  spindles  and  taken 
to  the  looms  for  weaving. 

Cotton  cloths  are  nothing  more  than  such  threads  woven  together, 
those  that  extend  lengthwise  of  the  piece  being  called  the  warp,  and  those 
across  it,  the  woof.  An  ordinary  piece  of  calico  has  a  warp  of  perhaps 
twelve  hundred  threads,  while  a  wide  piece  of  cloth,  such  as  a  sheet  for  a 
bed,  may  contain  as  many  as  twenty-five  hundred.  Stripes  are  made  by 
coloring  the  threads  differently,  and  then,  before  the  weaving  begins,  by 
carefully  arranging  them  according  to  some  design. 

Wool  Manufacturing.  —  Wool  is  cut,  or  sheared^  from  sheep,  and 
much  of  that  which  is  manufactured  into  cloth  in  New  England  is 
obtained  from  Ohio  and  other  states  farther  west.  Large  quantities 
are  also  imported  from  Australia. 

After  being  sheared  from  the  sheep,  the  wool  is  washed  and  freed  from 
burs,  sticks,  etc.  Then  it  is  untangled  and  combed  out  straight,  after 
which  it  is  twisted  into  yarn,  much  as  cotton  is  twisted  into  thread.  The 
yarn  is  woven  into  cloth  for  men's  suits  and  overcoats,  and  also  for  cloaks, 
skirts,  underwear,  blankets,  stockings,  carpets,  and  dozens  of  other  articles. 
Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  garments  that  you  are  wearing  are  either  made 
of  wool  or  cotton,  or  of  the  two  mixed  together. 

The  cities  extensively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  either  cot- 
ton or  woolen  cloth,  or  both,  are,  in  Maine,  Biddefokd,  Lewiston, 
Auburn,  and  Augusta,  the   capital ;    in   New  Hampshire,  Man- 


NEW   ENGLAND  61 

CHESTER,  Nashua,  and  Dover  ;  in  Massachusetts,  Lowell  and 
Lawrence  on  the  Merrimac  River,  Pittsfield  in  western  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Fall  River,  New  Bedford,  and  Taunton  in  the 
southern  part;  in  Rhode  Island,  Pawtucket,  Woonsocket,  and 
Providence  (Fig.  47),  which  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  New 
England.  One  of  the  largest  cotton  factories  in  the  world  is  at 
Manchester,  N.H. 

Leather  Manufacturing.  —  Boot  and  shoe  making  is  carried  on  in 
a  number  of  cities,  though  the  most  important  are  Lynn,  Haver- 
hill, and  Brockton  in  Massachusetts.  Leather  is  made  from  the 
hides  of  animals,  such  as  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  hogs. 
After  the  hair  is  removed,  the  hides  are  taken  to  tanneries,  where 
they  are  soaked  in  a  liquid  to  make  them  durable. 

Some  of  the  tanneries  are  situated  near  forests,  as  in  Michigan,  where 
there  are  many  hemlock  trees,  whose  bark  produces  the  tannic  acid  for 
tanning.  Others  are  in  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina,  where  a  kind  of 
oak  grows  from  which  tannic  acid  is  made.  Some  of  the  tanneries  of 
New  England  are  also  near  the  forest ;  but  many,  as  those  in  and  about 
Salem,  are  so  far  away  that  the  bark,  as  well  as  the  hides,  must  be  brought 
a  long  distance  to  them. 

In  other  tanneries,  chemicals  are  used  in  place  of  the  tannic  acid  from 
hemlock  or  oak  bark.  In  a  single  tannery  near  Boston,  where  sheep  skins 
are  tanned,  from  thirty  thousand  to  forty  thousand  skins  are  used  each  week. 

After  being  thus  prepared,  the  leather  is  brought  to  the  shoe  factories 
and  cut  up,  one  machine  cutting  out  soles  of  a  certain  size,  a  second  tops,  a 
third  tongues,  etc. ;  these  parts  are  then  sewed  or  nailed  together,  and  the 
shoes  are  soon  finished.  As  in  the  case  of  cotton  and  wool  manufacturing, 
nearly  all  the  work  is  done  by  machinery,  each  person  caring  for  one  or 
more  machines  and  performing  the  same  simple  task  day  after  day. 

Besides  boots  and  shoes,  leather  is  made  into  many  other  articles, 
as  bookbindings,  harness,  pocketbooks,  and  bicycle  saddles.  Can 
you  not  name  some  others  ? 

Metal  Manufacturing.  —  On  account  of  the  water  power,  New 
England  early  became  engaged  in  manufacturing  metals  into  various 
articles  ;  and,  although  steam  now  largely  takes  the  place  of  water, 
these  industries  are  still  very  extensive,  especially  in  the  three 
southern  states.  Since  almost  no  coal  and  iron  are  produced  in 
that  section,  these  two  materials  must  be  shipped  from  other  states. 
Therefore,  large,  heavy  objects  that  require  much  metal  and  coal  are 
not  usually  made. 

The  lighter   articles,  as  jewelry,  clocks,  needles,  cutlery,  toois, 


62  rroBTH  ambrioa 

and  firearms,  that  require  a  high  degree  of  skill,  are  the  chief  articles 
manufactured  from  metal  in  New  England.  For  instance,  Worcbs- 
TEK  (Fig.  47),  near  Boston,  is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  wire  and 
iron  goods,  besides  envelopes,  boots,  and  shoes ;  Providence  manu- 
factures great  quantities  of  jewelry ;  New  Haven  is  noted  for  hard- 
ware and  firearms ;  Bridgeport  manufactures  carriages,  sewing 
machines,  etc. ;  Hartford,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  on 
the  Connecticut  River,  and  Springfield,  farther  north,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, both  produce  firearms,  cars,  and  bicycles.  Fitchburg  is 
also  engaged  in  metal  manufacturing. 

Near  Boston,  at  Waltham,  the  American  Watch  Company  has  an 
immense  factory  where  twenty-one  hundred  watches  are  made  every  day. 
About  twenty-four  hundred  persons,  more  than  half  of  whom  are  women, 
are  employed  there,  receiving  $  100,000  a  month  in  wages.  Great  numbers 
of  clocks  and  watches  are  made  in  Waterbury,  and  jewelry  and  cutlery 
at  Meriden,  Connecticut ;  and  in  hundreds  of  smaller  cities,  towns,  and 
villages  in  New  England  there  are  factories  and  mills  of  various  sorts. 
Also  some  of  the  cities  occupied  in  cotton  and  woolen  manufacturing, 
such  as  Fall  River,  Lowell,  and  New  Bedford,  are  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  other  metals. 

Largest  Cities  and  Chief  Shipping  Routes 

The  Large  Cities.  —  All  this  manufacturing  calls  for  an  immense 
amount  of  cotton,  wool,  leather,  metals,  coal,  and  food  ;  and  most  of 
these  products  come  from  outside  New  England.  It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  there  are  many  cities  on  the  coast.  For  instance, 
Portland  (Fig:  47),  the  largest  city  in  Maine,  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  and  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway, 
which  runs  through  Canada,  so  that  in  winter,  when  the  St.  Law- 
rence River  is  frozen  over,  it  is  a  shipping  point  for  Canadian 
goods.  New  Haven,  the  largest  city  in  Connecticut,  Providence 
(Fig.  47),  the  largest  in  Rhode  Island,  and  Boston,  the  greatest  in 
New  England,  are  all  on  the  seacoast. 

The  seacoast  of  New  Hampshire  is  very  small,  and  the  largest  city, 
Manchester,  engaged  in  manufacturing,  is  inland  near  some  falls  in  the 
Merrimac  River ;  but  on  the  coast  is  the  important  city  of  Portsmouth. 
Vermont  has  no  seacoast.  Its  largest  city,  Burlington,  engaged  in  lum- 
bering and  manufacturing,  is  on  Lake  Champlain. 

Boston  and  Vicinity.  —  The  most  important  of  all  the  New  Eng- 
land cities  is  Boston,  which  k  fifth  in  si«;e  in  the  United  States.     It 


NEW   ENGLAND  63 

is  itself  a  great  manufacturing  center,  being  engaged  in  most  of  the 
industries  already  named,  and  in  making  clothing  particularly. 
About  it  are  many  large  cities  and  towns  in  which  also  are  large 
manufactories  (Fig.  48).  In  addition,  these  cities  serve  as  places  of 
residence  for  many  of  the  business  men  of  Boston. 

Among  these  the  largest  are  Cambridge  and  Somerville  (Fig.  48), 
which  are  extensively  engaged  in  meat  packing,  machine  manufacturing, 
and  printing.  Other  cities  near  Boston  are  represented  on  Figure  48. 
Among  these  are  Chelsea  and  Malden,  each  of  which  is  engaged  in 
manufacturing  rubber  goods  and  other  articles.  Not  far  from  Boston  is 
Salem,  which  in  the  early  days  was  even  more  important  than  Boston. 
Since  its  harbor  is  too  shallow  for  the  deep  ships  of  the  present  time,  this 
city  has  lost  much  of  its  commerce,  which  is  now  carried  on  in  Boston. 
Notice  in  Figure  32  that  Salem  was  one  of  the  large  cities  in  1790. 

The  great  size  of  Boston  is  due  largely  to  its  excellent  harbor 
(Fig.  48)  and  its  central  location.  Many  railway  lines  reach  out 
from  the  city  toward  all  parts  of  the  country,  while  numerous  steam- 
ship lines  connect  Boston  with  all  important  points  along  the  coast 
and  with  foreign  countries  (Fig.  48). 

The  port  of  Boston  is  second  in  importance  in  the  United  States. 
Raw  materials  are  sent  there  in  great  quantities  for  distribution 
among  factories,  and  the  finished  goods  are  shipped  all  over  the 
world.  Also  much  grain  and  meat  for  food  reach  Boston  from  the 
West,  and  from  there  are  distributed  among  the  smaller  cities,  or 
shipped  to  foreign  countries.  These,  in  return,  send  such  articles 
as  coffee,  tea,  and  bananas,  which  are  needed  in  New  England. 

Boston  and  vicinity  have  been  important  from  the  beginning  of  our 
history.  There,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  occurred 
the  Boston  Tea  Party,  Paul  Revere's  ride,  and  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
The  vicinity  of  Boston  is  also  noted  for  its  literary  associations.  Harvard 
College,  the  oldest  in  the  United  States,  was  founded  in  1636  at  Cam- 
bridge, three  miles  from  Boston.  Yale  College,  at  New  Haven,  Ct.,  was 
established  sixty-five  years  later,  in  1701.  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Holmes, 
and  Agassiz  were  professors  at  Harvard;  and  Hawthorne,  Emerson, 
Thoreau,  and  Whittier  lived  near  by. 

Summer  Resorts 

New  England  is  so  extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  other 
forms  of  business,  that  immense  numbers  of  people  dwell  in  cities,  where, 
during  most  of  the  year,  they  are  closely  confined  in  noisy  factories,  or 
in  offices  and  stores.     To  these,  the  wooded  mountains,  the  silvery  lakes 


64 


NOBTE    AMERICA 


(Fig.  12)  and  rivers,  the  green  valleys,  and  the  rocky  seacoast  offer  such 
attractions  that  each  summer  tens  of  thousands  run  away  from  town  for  a 
week,  or  even  for  months,  to  enjoy  their  vacations  at  these  places. 

They  go  to  the  green  slopes  of  the  beautiful  Berkshire  Hills  and  Green 
Mountains,  or  climb  about  among  the  rugged  peaks  of  the  White  Moun- 
tains to  enjoy  the  magnificent  scenery  (Fig.  50).  Many  plunge  into  the 
■woods  of  Maine  or  northern  New  Hampshire,  to  hunt  and  fish,  or  to  canoe 
upon  the  streams  and  lakes.  Others  settle  down  at  farmhouses  to  enjoy 
the  quiet  of  the  country  (Figs.  49  and  56). 

While  great  numbers  visit  the  woods,  mountains,  and  country,  many 
go  to  the  seashore  to  escape  the  heat  and  to  bathe  in  the  salt  water,  or  to 


Fig.  58. 
Katahdin  Lake,  Maine.     Mt.  Katahdin  rises  in  the  background. 

sail  and  row.  So  many  go  there,  in  fact,  that  almost  the  entire  New  Eng- 
land coast  is  dotted  with  summer  cottages  and  hotels.  Thousands  visit 
Bar  Harbor  (on  Mt.  Desert  Island  in  Maine,  Fig.  55)j  which  is  therefore 
a  very  busy  place  in  summer.  Nantucket  Island  and  Martha's  Vineyard 
are  similar  resorts  farther  south,  while  Newport,  just  west  of  them,  on 
Narragansett  Bay,  is  noted  for  its  many  magnificent  summer  homes. 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  What  effects  have  the  glacier  and  the  sinking  of 
the  coast  had  upon  New  England  ?  (2)  Describe  the  surface  of  the  country  and 
name  the  principal  mountain  ranges.  (3)  How  do  ocean  currents  influence  its 
climate?  (4)  Describe  lumbering  in  Maine.  (5)  To  what  use  is  lumber  put? 
(6)   What  cities  are  noted  for  it?     (7)   How  are  maple  sugar  and  sirup  made  in 


NSW    ENGLAND  €6 

Vermont  ?  (8)  State  how  granite  is  quarried  and  what  its  uses  are.  (9)  State 
the  same  about  marble  and  slate.  (10)  Describe  each  of  the  kinds  of  fishing  on 
the  New  England  coast.  (11)  Tell  about  the  farming.  (12)  What  led  to  the 
early  development  of  manufacturing  in  New  England?  (13)  What  now  deter- 
mines the  site  of  a  factory  ?  (14)  Describe  cotton  manufacturing.  (15)  Wool 
manufacturing.  (16)  On  the  map,  locate  the  cities  most  extensively  engaged  in 
either  or  both  of  these.  (17)  Tell  about  the  tanning  of  leather.  (18)  About  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  (19)  Locate  the  cities  most  noted  for  these  indus- 
tries. (20)  What  can  you  say  about  the  manufacture  of  metals?  (21)  Name 
and  locate  the  chief  cities  engaged  in  it.  (22)  Give  several  facts  about  Boston. 
(23)  What  large  cities  are  near  it?  (24)  Where  and  how  do  the  people  take  their 
summer  outing  ?  (25)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  New  England  States,  including  the 
chief  rivers,  cities,  and  the  state  boundaries. 

Review  by  States:  Maine  (Me.).  —  (1)  Draw  the  coast  line  of  Maine. 
(2)  What  makes  it  so  irregular?  (3)  Find  the  principal  rivers.  (4)  What 
cities  are  situated  on  each?  (5)  Should  you  expect  much  fishing  along  the  coast? 
Why  ?  (6)  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  so  many  people  resort  to  the  Maine 
coast  and  woods  in  summer  ?  (7)  Describe  the  lumbering  in  Maine.  (8)  What 
cities  are  engaged  in  producing  lumber?  Why?  (9)  What  stones  are  quarried 
in  the  state  ?  (10)  Which  is  the  largest  city?  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with 
Boston  and  Providence  ?  (See  Appendix  pp.  iv-vi.)  (11)  What  other  cities 
in  Maine  are  mentioned  in  the  text?  Find  them  on  the  map.  (12)  Draw  an 
outline  map  of  Maine,  locating  the  principal  rivers  and  lakes,  the  capital,  and  the 
chief  cities.     Do  the  same  for  each  of  the  other  states  as  you  study  about  it. 

New  Hampshire  (N.H.). —  (13)  What  large  lakes  are  found  in  this  state? 
What  river?  (14)  Name  the  cities  on  it.  (15)  For  what  are  they  important? 
(16)  Why  are  there  not  more  cities  in  northern  New  Hampshire?  (17)  What 
industry  should  you  expect  there  ?  (18)  Find  Mt.  Washington  ;  it  is  the  highest 
peak  in  New  England.  (19)  Where  should  you  expect  to  find  most  farming? 
(20)    How  does  the  largest  city  in  the  state  compare  in  size  with  Portland? 

Vermont  (Vt.).  —  (21)  AVhat  large  lake  on  the  western  boundary?  Into  what 
waters  does  it  flow  ?  (22)  What  river  on  the  eastern  boundary  ?  Through  what 
states  does  it  pass?  (23)  What  is  the  name  of  the  mountains?  (24)  Lumbering 
is  carried  on,  as  in  Maine ;  into  what  waters  must  the  lumber  be  floated?  (25)  What 
other  Vermont  industries  are  mentioned  in  the  text  ?  (26)  There  is  also  farming 
in  the  fertile  valleys  and  manufacturing,  as  at  Brattleboro.  Find  Brattleboro. 
(27)    Compare  the  size  of  the  largest  city  with  that  of  Manchester,  N.H. 

Massachusetts  (Mass.).  —  (28)  Measure  the  length  and  width  of  Massachusetts 
and  compare  it  with  Vermont  and  Maine.  (29)  Name  the  large  cities  near 
Boston.  (See  Fig.  48.)  (30)  Find  Plymouth ;  for  what  is  it  noted  ?  (31)  Find 
the  principal  cities  mentioned  in  the  text  and  tell  where  each  is  located. 
(32)  For  what  is  each  important?  (33)  What  advantages  do  you  see  in 
the  location  of   each?     (34)   Where  is  the  mountainous  portion  of  the  state? 

(35)  What  effect  should  you  expect  the  mountains  to  have  upon  agriculture? 

(36)  State  as  clearly  as  you  can  the  reasons  why  Boston  has  grown  as  it  has. 

(37)  Of  what  importance  is  Boston  to  the  cities  near  by?  (38)  Of  what  impor- 
tance are  they  to  Boston  ? 

Rhode  Island  (R.I.).  —  (39)  Measure  this  and  compare  its  length  and  width 
with  that  of  Massachusetts  and  Maine.  It  is  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union. 
(40)  What  is  the  name  of  the  bay  in  this  state  ?  What  cities  are  situated  on 
it  ?     (41)  What  large  city  is  in  Rhode  Island  ?     (42)  Compare  its  size  with  Boston 


66 


NORTH   AMEBWA 


and  Portland.  (43)  Should  you  expect  much  lumbering  in  Rhode  Island  ?  Why  7 
(44)    Farming?     Why? 

Connecticut  (Conn,  or  Ct.). —  (45)  Where  are  the  mountains  in  this  state? 
(46)  Locate  each  of  the  cities  mentioned  in  the  text.  (47)  Tell  for  what  each 
is  important.  (48)  The  farms  of  Connecticut  are  better  than  those  of  Maine. 
Give  reasons  for  this.  (49)  There  is  almost  no  lumbering  in  this  state.  Why  ? 
(50)  Compare  the  size  of  New  Haven  with  that  of  Boston  and  Portland.  See 
Appendix,  pp.  v  and  vi. 

General.  —  (51)  Name  the  industries  of  New  England.  Tell  in  which  states 
they  are  carried  on.  Which  industry  do  you  consider  to  be  the  most  important  ? 
(52)  Make  a  list  of  the  ten  largest  cities  (see  Appendix,  pp.  iv-vii)  in  New  Eng- 
land, the  states  they  are  in,  and  the  business  they  are  engaged  in. 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Read  Whittier's  Snow-Bound.  (2)  Read  about  lumber- 
ing in  Chase  and  Clow's  Stories  of  Industry,  Vol.  I.  (3)  Visit  a  stone  yard,  or 
a  place  where  monuments  are  made,  and  collect  some  specimens  from  the  chips  in 
the  yard.  (4)  Find  blocks  of  granite  and  marble  in  buildings.  (5)  Make  draw- 
ings of  mackerel,  cod,  and  halibut.  You  will  find  pictures  of  them  in  the  dic- 
tionary. (6)  Make  a  collection  of  cotton,  wool,  leather,  and  metals  for  the  school. 
Also  make  a  collection  of  articles  manufactured  from  them.  (7)  If  cotton  is 
worth  7^  cents  per  pound,  how  much  would  the  70,000  pounds,  that  one  mill  uses 
in  a  day,  be  worth?  (8)  What  are  the  average  wages  per  hour  of  the  hands  in 
the  Waltham  Watch  Factory?  The  working  day  there  is  ten  hours  long.  How 
many  watches  are  made  per  minute  ?    Per  year  ? 

For  References  to  Books  and  Articles,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


Copyright,  1898,  by  E.  M.  Perry. 


Fig.  G. 


Beproduced  by  permission. 


A  New  England  winter  scene.    Whittier's  birthplace,  Haverhill,  Mass. 
(Described  in  "  Snow-Bound.") 


VI.    MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES 


Physiography.  —  The  Appalachian  mountain  ranges  and  plateaus, 
with  their  stores  of  coal  and  iron,  extend  across  these  states  from 
northeast  to  southwest.  Just  east  of  the  mountains  is  a  low,  hilly 
plateau  of  hard  rock,  called  the  Piedmont  ^  plateau.  This  low,  hilly 
region  is  really  a  worn-down  mountain  land  like  New  England ;  in 
fact,  it  represents  the  very  roots  of  those  mountains  which  rose  above 
the  sea  long  before  the  Coal  Period  (p.  2).  The  land  slopes  seaward, 
and  the  streams  flow  in  short  courses  in  the  same  direction. 

Nearer  the  seacoast  the  country  is  a  low  plain  of  softer  rocks, 
chiefly  sands  and  clays,  that  were  deposited  on  the  sea  bottom  and 
then  raised  to  form  dry  land.  These 
plains,  added  to  the  country  not  many 
ages  ago,  are  known  as  the  coastal  plains 
(Fig.  43). 

From  New  York  to  Alabama  the  line  of 
division  between  the  Piedmont  plateau  and 
the  coastal  plains  is  marked  by  rapids  and 
low  falls  near  where  streams  cross  it,  and  it 
is  therefore  called  ihefall  line  (Fig.  59).  There 
are  rapids  and  falls  at  this  place  because  the 
streams  dig  more  rapidly  into  the  soft  layers  of 
the  coastal  plains  than  into  the  harder  rocks 
of  the  Piedmont  plateau. 

Since  the  rapids  and  falls  determine  the 
place  where  boats  passing  upstream  must  stop, 
and  also  where  there  is  water  power,  the  earlier 
settlers  located  their  villages  on  the  fall  line,  as 
the  Indians  had  done  before  them.  Note  (Fig.  59)  how  many  large  cities 
are  on  this  line.     Name  them. 

Although  at  first  the  Appalachians  acted  as  a  serious  barrier  to 
westward  migration  (p.  36),  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century 
*  Piedmont  means  foot  of  mountain. 


Fia.  59. 

The  fall  line.  Coastal  plains 
dotted,  Piedmont  and  other 
sections  left  white.  Cities 
printed  in  heavy  type  are 
located  along  the  fall  line. 


MtiP  of  tli« 
of 

NEW  yoifcK. 

y   10   ao  M  ta  If   6p  7J  y 

eCALE  OF  MILES  (O 


Toronto, 


Fig.  60. 
The  Erie  Canal  and  other  water  routes  of  New  York  and  vicinity. 


Fig.  61. 
The  locks  in  the  Erie  Canal  at  Locfcport 


Fig.  62. 
Map  Questions.  —  (1)  Which  states  hare  mountains?  (2)  Which  has  none?  (3)  What  influence  d« 
you  thinlc  the  mountains  have  upon  the  industries?  (4)  What  waters  help  to  form  the  boundary  of  thii^ 
group  of  states?  (5)  Find  where  natural  boundaries  separate  the  states.  (6)  Measure  the  length  and 
width  of  this  group  of  states  and  compare  them  with  the  New  England  States  (Fig.  47).  Notice  that  the 
scale  of  the  two  maps  is  different.  (7)  Which  is  the  largest  state  ?  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  Maine  ? 
(See  Appendix,  p.  iii.)  (8)  Name  the  three  bays.  Why  has  a  city  at  the  head  of  one  of  these  bays  a  better 
location  than  one  at  the  entrance  ?  (9)  Name  the  capital  of  each  state.  (10)  The  capital  of  the  United 
States  is  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country.  Why?  Where  would  a  better  location  be?  (11)  Name  the 
five  largest  rirers.    Into  what  watetji  do  ^ear  flow  ?    Tbxoush  what  states  ? 


OF     THE 

M  J  D  D  L.  E: 


Iatlantjc  st 


M ode  led    by 


EDWIN   e:  .  H  o  w  e:  I 


scale: 

O         Z=>        bO       -i5 


Fig.  63. 
Where  are  the  lakes  found  ?     Why  iu  that  part  ? 


Fia.  H. 

The  water  escaping  here  is  a  small  portion  of  that  used  for  power  at  Niagara  Falls.  Yet  only 
a  very  minute  portion  of  the  enormous  power  available  is  now  used. 


Fig.  64. 
A  View  of  Niagara  FallSc 


70 


NORTH    AMERICA 


many  emigrants  pushed  their  way  across  the  mountains.  This  migra- 
tion was  greatly  aided  by  the  fact  that  numerous  rivers,  such  as  the 
Mohawk,  Delaware  (Fig.  ^&)^  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  and  James, 

flow  across  a  part 
or  the  whole  of  the 
mountain  system. 
They  offered  a 
comparatively  easy 
route  across  the 
mountains  and 
therefore  formed 
gateways  to  the 
fertile  western 
plains  beyond. 
Trace  each  of  these 
rivers  from  its 
source  to  its  mouth. 
On  the  western 
side  of  the  Appa- 
lachians there  is  a 
plateau,  sloping 
gently  toward  the 
Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers,  called  the  Appalachian  plateaa.  Near  the  mountains, 
in  West  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  the  plateau  is  so  deeply  cut  by 
rivers,  and  therefore  so  rocky,  that  it  would  probably  have  attracted 
but  few  settlers  had  it  not  been  for  the  rich  coal  beds  inclosed  in  its 
strata.  The  mining  of  this  coal  has  been  greatly  aided  by  the  work 
of  the  rivers,  which  have  in  many  cases  cut  down  to  the  coal  beds 
and  brought  the  coal  to  light  (Fig.  7). 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  glacier  did  not  spread  over  the  south- 
ern part  of  this  group  of  states  (Fig.  9),  few  lakes  and  waterfalls  are 
found  there.  But  they  abound  in  New  York  and  northern  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  which  the  glacier  did  cover.  Indeed,  on 
the  boundary  of  New  York  is  the  greatest  waterfall  in  America  — 
the  famous  Niagara  (Fig.  64).  Two  of  the  Great  Lakes  are  also 
partly  in  New  York,  and  a  number  of  other  large  lakes  are  within 
its  boundaries.     Name  some  of  them.     See  map.  Fig.  62. 

In  the  Middle  States,  as  in  New  England,  the  sinking  of  the  land 
has  produced  numerous  large  bays  and  fine  harbors,  through  which 


Fig.  65. 

The  Delaware  Water  Gap,  where  the  Delaware  cuts  through  a 
mountain  ridge. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC   STATES  71 

the  tide  often  reaches  far  inland.  In  the  Hudson  River,  for  example, 
the  tide  extends  above  Albany,  and  in  the  several  branches  of  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  it  reaches  nearly  to  the  fall  line. 

Most  of  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy,  with  a  gradual  descent  into  the 
sea,  so  that  bathing  is  excellent  (Fig.  66).  Because  of  this  fact  and  the 
cool  sea  breezes  of  summer,  the  coast  is  noted  for  its  numerous  summer 
resorts,  especially  near  the  large  cities. 

Climate.  —  The  northern  part  of  New  York  reaches  to  the  45th 
parallel  of  latitude.  How  far  is  that  from  the  equator  ?  From  the 
north  pole  ?  How  much  nearer  the  equator  is  the  southern  part  of 
Virginia  ?     What  effect  does  this  have  on  the  crops  ? 


Fig.  66. 
A  New  Jersey  beach  in  summer. 

While  the  climate  of  the  northern  portion  of  this  group  of  states 
resembles  that  of  New  England,  the  climate  of  the  southern  portion 
is  much  warmer.  Its  greater  warmth  is  due  partly  to  the  lower 
latitude,  and  partly  to  the  ocean  currents.  The  cold  Labrador  cur- 
rent does  not  extend  south  of  Cape  Cod  ;  but  the  Gulf  Stream  passes 
very  near  the  Virginia  coast  (Fig.  264,  p.  264). 

The  climate  is  so  mild  in  Virginia  that  sleighing  and  skating  are 
rarely  possible,  while  places  near  the  entrance  of  Chesapeake  Bay  —  as 
Old  Point  Comfort  and  Newport  News  —  are  important  winter  resorts. 
Among  the  mountains,  however,  the  climate  is  cooler;  and  even  as  far 
south  as  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  there  are  cool  summer  resorts  on 
the  mountain  sides. 

Variable  winds  supply  all  of  these  states  with  thirty  or  forty 
inches  of  rain  per  year,  which  is  sufficient  for  crops  and  for  dense 
forests.     Because  of  its  climate  and  products,  the  region  is  well 


72  NORTH  AMERICA 

fitted  to  support  a  dense  population ;  and  next  we  shall  see  where 
the  largest  numbers  of  people  are  collected,  and  in  what  occupations 
they  are  engaged. 

Forests.  —  Many  of  the  prominent  industries  in  these  states  are  the 
same  as  those  of  New  England.  For  example,  there  are  extensive  forests 
both  in  the  Adirondack  and  Appalachian  mountains,  and  upon  the 
Appalachian  plateau  near  their  western  base.  In  the  southern  part, 
as  in  West  Virginia,  many  hardwood  trees  are  found;  but  in  the 
northern  portion  both  the  trees  and  the  methods  of  lumbering  resemble 
those  in  Maine.  Williamsport,  in  Pennsylvania,  is  extensively  en- 
gaged in  the  lumber  business,  as  Bangor  is  in  Maine.  There  are  also 
many  paper  mills  supplied  from  the  forests,  as  in  Watertown  near  the 
Adirondacks. 

Over  most  parts  of  this  section  the  woods  have  been  so  wantonly 
destroyed  that  it  is  now  necessary  to  protect  those  that  are  left.  New 
York  State  has  established  large  forest  reservations,  and  founded  a  Col- 
lege of  Forestry  at  Cornell  University  in  Ithaca.  Besides  this,  some 
large  tracts  of  woodland,  called  game  preserves,  are  carefully  protected  by 
certain  citizens  for  the  purpose  of  fishing  and  hunting  at  the  proper 
season.     State  laws  also  protect  the  game. 

Fish  and  Oysters.  —  Fishing  is  a  much  less  important  industry 
than  in  New  England.  In  the  bays  many  shad  are  caught.  This 
fish  swims  up  the  bays  and  rivers  each  spring  in  order  to  lay  its 
eggs  in  fresh  water,  where  the  young  remain  until  they  are  large 
enough  to  venture  to  the  sea. 

Oysters  are  found  from  Cape  Cod  to  the  Rio  Grande  (Fig.  232, 
p.  229);  but  one  of  the  best  localities  for  them  is  Chesapeake  Bay, 
where  the  waters  are  warm  and  quiet.  From  this  region  they  are 
collected  in  great  quantities.  Some  are  shipped  away  fresh  in  the 
shell,  but  many  are  canned,  like  fruit.  Baltimore  and  Norfolk 
are  especially  noted  for  this  industry. 

When  young,  the  oysters  swim  about  freely;  but  after  reaching  a 
certain  age,  they  sink  to  the  bottom,  fasten  themselves  to  some  solid  sub- 
stance, like  a  stone  or  an  oyster  shell,  and  never  move  from  that  spot. 
They  depend  for  food  upon  what  is  brought  to  their  mouths  by  the 
incoming  and  outflowing  tides.  Oysters  prefer  comparatively  shallow 
water  and  can  sometimes  be  picked  up  by  hand  from  a  boat ;  but  usually 
they  must  be  dragged  or  dredged  up  with  a  long-handled  rake.  Small 
steamers  and  sailing  boats  are  used  for  gathering  them.  So  profitable  is 
the  industry  that  in  many  places  there  are  private  oyster  beds,  or  "plan- 
tations," which  are  carefully  protected. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC   STATES 


73 


Agriculture 


There  is  more  good  farm  land  in  these  states  than  in  New  Eng. 
iand,  and  therefore  agriculture  is  a  more  important  industry.  The 
low,  level,  coastal  plains,  the  gently  undulating  Piedmont  plateau, 
and  nearly  all  of  New  York  State,  except  the  Catskill  and  Adiron- 
dack mountains,  are  dotted  with  farms.  Also  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Allegheny  plateau,  and  in  the  broad  valleys  between  the  Appalachian 
ridges,  there  is  much  farming  land.  In  fact,  there  were  farms  in  the 
latter  valleys  even  before  there  were  settlers  in  the  prairie  states 
farther  west.  The  numerous  large  cities  call  for  quantities  of  vege- 
tables and  small  fruit,  and  so  there  is  much  truck  farming.  Virginia 
raises  many  early  vegetables  for  northern  markets. 

Dairying.  —  Many  farmers  turn  their  attention  chiefly  to  dairy- 
ing; and,  although  butter  and  cheese  are  made  in  every  state  in  the 
Union,  this  work 
is  so  important  in 
New  York  that  it 
is  described  at 
this  point. 

The  number  of 
cows  in  a  dairy 
herd  (Fig.  67) 
varies  from  a  dozen 
to  several  score. 
In  summer  they 
are  usually  allowed 
to  graze  in  pastures, 
but  daring  the  win- 
ter they  are  fed  in  large  barns.  Twice  each  day  they  are  milked,  and  the 
milk  may  be  sent  to  a  neighboring  city  to  be  sold  by  the  quart,  as  in  New 
England  (p.  58),  or  it  may  be  kept  for  butter.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 
placed  in  a  rapidly  revolving  machine,  called  a  separator^  which  separates 
the  cream  from  the  milk.  The  cream  is  then  churned  until  butter  is 
made.  The  skimmed  milk,  left  after  the  cream  is  separated,  and  the 
buttermilk,  left  after  the  butter  is  made,  are  fed  to  hogs,  and  used  in 
other  ways. 


Fig.  67. 

A  dairy  herd  in  New  York,  on  the  way  to  the  barn  in  the 
evening. 


The  best  cheese  is  made  from  fresh  milk;  but  the  process  is 
too  difficult  to  be  described  here.  Utica,  on  the  Mohawk  River, 
is  an  important  cheese  market ;  and  scattered  all  over  New  York 
are  small  cheese  and  butter  factories,  or  creameries.     These  are  of 


T4 


NOBTH    AMERICA 


great  value  to  the  surrounding  farmers,  since  they  furnish  a  ready 
market  for  the  milk,  some  of  which  is  brought  to  the  creameries 
on  trains. 

Tobacco.  —  Among  the  plants  which  the  early  explorers  found  in 
America  was  the  tobacco.  Much  to  the  astonishment  of  the  Euro- 
peans, the  savages  smoked  the  dried  tobacco  leaves  in  pipes.  How- 
ever, the  newcomers  quickly  learned  to  smoke  also,  and  tobacco 
soon  became  one  of  the  leading  products  shipped  to  Europe.     Now 

its  use  extends  throughout  the 
world.  So  much  tobacco  is  now  con- 
sumed that,  although  produced  in 
many  countries,  tens  of  thousands 
of  men  in  the  United  States  alone 
are  employed  in  raising  and  pre- 
paring it  for  the  market. 

The  climate  of  most  parts  of  New 
England  and  New  York  is  too  severe 
for  this  plant;  but  large  quantities 
are  raised  in  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
and  in  the  valleys  of  southern  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio  (Fig. 
216,  p.  223).  However,  the  state 
most  noted  for  its  production  is  Vir- 
ginia. In  the  vicinity  of  Lynch- 
burg and  Danville,  where  much 
tobacco  manufacturing  is  carried  on, 
immense  quantities  are  raised  ;  and 
Richmond  and  Petersburg,  on  the  fall  line  (Fig.  59),  are  among 
the  great  tobacco  markets  of  the  world.     Find  these  cities. 

The  plant,  which  grows  to  a  height  of  about  three  and  a  half  feet,  has 
thick  leaves  which  are  large  and  broad  (Fig.  68),  somewhat  like  those  of 
the  pieplant  or  rhubarb.  The  leaves,  which  are  the  valuable  part  of  the 
plant,  are  plucked  in  the  fall,  hung  in  a  room  to  dry,  and  then  made  into 
some  form  for  use. 

Fruits  and  Vegetables. — Both  the  fertile  soil  and  the  climate  of 
these  states  are  well  suited  to  fruit  raising.  Nearly  every  farmer 
raises  somt  fruit*  But  the  sections  near  water  have  the  best  climate 
for  it,  because  the  water  causes  the  air  to  be  cooler  in  summer 
and  warmer  in  winter.     One  of  the  most  noted  fruit  belts  is  the 


Fig.  68. 


The  tobacco  plant. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC   STATES  75 

Chautauqua  grape  belt  on  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Erie  in 
western  New  York. 

Apples  form  an  important  fruit  crop  in  New  York,  being  grown 
in  many  parts  of  the  state,  but  especially  along  the  southern  shores 
of  Lake  Ontario.  So  much  fruit  is  cultivated  in  New  York  that  the 
nursery  business,  or  that  of  raising  young  fruit  trees  and  bushes  to 
sell,  is  greatly  developed.  One  of  the  principal  centers  for  this  busi- 
ness is  Rochester. 

On  the  coastal  plain  and  Piedmont  plateau  of  eastern  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  grapes,  berries,  especially 
strawberries,  apples,  and  other  fruits  flourish.  Aside  from  fruit,  such 
common  vegetables  as  potatoes,  tomatoes,  beans,  and  sweet  corn  are 
raised  in  all  parts  of  these  states. 

All  of  these  fruits  and  vegetables  are  eaten  fresh  during  the  proper 
season,  being  used  in  such  quantities  that  they  are  sent  to  the  cities  on 
fast  trains,  and  even  in  special  cars.  They  are  prepared  for  the  table  in 
other  ways  also ;  for  instance,  the  juice  of  grapes  is  made  into  wine,  and 
that  of  apples  into  vinegar. 

The  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for  winter  use  has  become  an 
important  industry  in  several  cities,  as  in  Baltimore  and  Wilmington. 
Many  farmers  are  engaged  almost  entirely  in  raising  fruits  and  vegetables 
for  this  purpose.  Probably  as  many  peaches,  berries,  tomatoes,  etc.,  are 
put  up  in  cans  as  are  eaten  in  the  fresh  state.  The  tin  cans  in  which  they 
are  preserved  are  to  be  seen  in  every  grocery  store. 

Many  other  crops,  such  as  hay  and  grain,  are  raised  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States ;  but  a  description  of  these  will  be  given  in  connec- 
tion with  the  states  further  west,  where  such  crops  are  produced  on 
a  much  larger  scale  (pp.  121-126). 

This  farming  not  only  supplies  food  to  the  residents  of  the  cities, 
but  it  also  furnishes  many  of  them  with  occupation.  The  marketmen 
and  grocerymen,  for  instance,  receive  a  profit  when  they  sell  vege- 
tables, whether  fresh  or  canned.  The  workmen  in  the  flour  mills 
and  canneries  are  also  supplied  with  work  by  the  farmers.  Many 
other  factories  are  established  because  of  farming;  for  example, 
the  agricultural  implement  factory  at  Auburn,  N.Y.  (p.  82). 
Even  much  of  the  lumbering  and  mining  is  done  because  the  farmers 
need  furniture,  plows,  etc.  Besides  this,  supplying  goods  needed 
by  the  farmers  forms  an  important  part  of  the  business  in  many 
cities,  like  Lancastbr,  Penn.,  which  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  farming 
country. 


76  NORTH   AMERICA 


Mining 


The  products  from  underground  are  far  more  important  in  these 
states  than  in  New  England. 

Salt — One  of  these  is  salt,  a  mineral  which  every  person  must  have. 
In  the  early  days  salt  springs  were  discovered  at  the  point  where  Syra- 
cuse stands,  and  that  city  owed  its  early  growth  to  those  springs.  Little 
salt  is  now  produced  there ;  but  immense  quantities  of  soda  are  made  of 
brine  obtained  from  the  beds  of  salt  near  by. 

These  beds  of  salt  were  deposited  in  the  sea  which  covered  this  region 
before  the  Coal  Period,  and  were  then  buried  beneath  layers  of  rock.  They 
lie  deep  down  in  the  earth  in  the  region  south  of  Syracuse  and  Rochester, 
and  from  them  salt  is  obtained  at  a  number  of  places.  In  fact,  New 
York  produces  more  salt  than  any  other  state.  Kansas  produces  a  large 
amount. 

When  in  the  earth,  salt  is  hard,  somewhat  like  coal,  and  must  be 
obtained  in  one  of  two  ways.  In  one  case  a  small  hole  is  bored  to  it  and 
water  allowed  to  run  down  and  dissolve  it ;  then  the  brine  is  pumped  up 
and  the  water  is  evaporated  by  heat  until  only  the  salt  is  left.  In  the 
other  case,  a  deep  hole,  or  shaft,  large  enough  for  men  to  pass  up  and 
down,  is  dug  down  to  the  salt ;  then  lumps  of  salt  are  broken  off  and 
hoisted  to  the  surface.  A  salt  mine  is  a  beautiful  sight  with  its  clear, 
crystal-white  walls  and  clean  floor. 

Coal. — Although  there  is  little  water  power  south  of  the  region 
formerly  covered  by  the  glacier,  there  is  coal — an  excellent  sub- 
stitute. The  coal  swamps  that  existed  millions  of  years  ago  (p.  2) 
stretched  westward  from  the  ancient  Appalachian  Mountains  beyond 
the  Mississippi  River.  In  some  places  the  coal  has  been  entirely 
washed  away.  In  others,  it  is  sometimes  found  close  to  the  sur- 
face and  sometimes  several  hundred  feet  beneath  it.  Most  of 
this  is  soft  or  bituminous  coal,  which  is  mined  in  enormous  quan- 
tities in  the  neighborhood  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny. 

When  the  plains  and  plateaus  that  contain  the  coal  beds  were 
raised  above  the  sea,  they  were  nearly  everywhere  lifted  without 
much  folding.  This  was  the  case  in  western  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  In- 
diana, and  Illinois ;  but  mountains  were  formed  in  central  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  there  the  rocks,  including  the  coal  beds,  were  folded. 
During  the  long  ages  that  these  mountains  have  been  exposed  to 
the  weather,  the  mountain  tops  have  been  greatly  lowered.  Also 
rivers  have  carved  out  deep  valleys,  and  thus  most  of  the  coal  in 
that  section  has  been  washed  away  and  carried  to  the  sea.     In  two 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC   STATES 


77 


or  three  places,  however,  as  near  Wilkesbarre  and  Scranton,  beds 
of  hard,  or  anthracite^  coal  remain.  It  is  to  this  coal  that  these  cities 
owe  their  importance.  In  that  mountain  region  the  coal  beds  were 
so  deeply  folded  that  neither  the  weather  nor  the  rivers  has  been 
able  to  remove  them ;  and  they  remain,  therefore,  as  remnants 
of  much  larger  beds,  preserved  because  of  their  protected  posi- 
tion. 

Anthracite  coal  was  first  made  in  the  same  way  as  soft  coal.     Had  it 
not  been   subjected  to  the  pressure  caused  by  the  mountain  folding,  it 




'^ 

1 

m 

M| 

', 

w 

1 

1 

^^^p^^ 

1 

'      N^^^^^B 

1 

1 

1 

^^^^^^1 

"7'- 

"^BbI 

1 

i_ 

mm 

;  a^l 

Fig.  69. 
Mouth  of  a  coal  mine,  Allegany  County.     (Md.  Geol.  Survey.) 


would  doubtless  have  formed  a  bituminous  coal;  but  the  pressure  has 
changed  it  by  driving  off  the  gases  that  form  a  part  of  all  woody  matter. 
These  changes  have  made  the  coal  harder  and  more  difficult  to  burn ;  but 
since  it  gives  forth  a  more  intense  heat  than  bituminous  coal  and  burns 
with  less  smoke,  it  is  preferred  for  some  purposes,  such  as  heating  and 
cooking.  Throughout  New  England  and  many  parts  of  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States,  anthracite  is  the  only  coal  used  for  these  purposes. 

Most  of  the  anthracite  beds  lie  far  below  the  surface,  and  deep  shafts 
have  to  be  sunk  to  reach  them.  From  the  sides  of  such  a  shaft,  tunnels 
(Fig.  69)  are  dug  into  the  beds,  and  from  these  the  coal  is  removed.     Usu- 


IS 


NORTH    AMERICA 


Diagram  to  illustrate  how  coal  is  dug  out  of  the  beds  in  tunnels, 
and  raised  to  the  surface  through  shafts. 


ally  there  are  several  beds  of  coal,  with  thick  layers  of  rock  between  them, 
and  the  shaft  extends  downward  through  them  all,  with  tunnels  reaching 
out  from  it  at  each  level  of  the  mineral  (Fig.  70).     In  a  large  mine  one 

may  travel  for  days 
through  miles  and 
miles  of  dark  tun- 
nels. 

The  workmen 
break  the  coal  with 
the  aid  of  steam 
drills  and  picks, 
and  they  often 
furnish  their  own 
light  by  means  of 
lamps  fastened  to 
their  caps.  After 
the  coal  is  broken 
loose,  it  is  placed 
in  small  cars, 
drawn  to  the  shaft 
by  mules,  or  by 
electricity,  and 
then  hoisted  to  the 
surface  by  steam.  The  mules  are  kept  underground  for  months,  being 
fed  and  allowed  to  sleep  in  stables  cut  out  of  solid  coal. 

Oil  and  Gas.  —  In  the  plateau  along  the  northwestern  border 
of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  two  fuels,  oil  and  gas,  are  found. 
Petroleum,  as  the  oil  is  generally  called,  means  "  rock  oil, "  a  name 
which  suggests  its  origin. 

Ages  ago,  when  these  layers  of  rock  were  being  deposited  on  the  ocean 
floor,  countless  numbers  of  animals  and  plants,  dying  and  dropping  to  the 
bottom,  were  imprisoned  and  deeply  buried.  These  plant  and  animal 
fossils  then  slowly  decayed,  forming  oil  and  gas.  Later,  the  oil  and  gas 
were  stored  in  the  earth  in  the  pores  between  the  grains  of  sandstone  and 
other  rocks.  Very  nearly  the  same  kind  of  oil  is  now  manufactured  from 
fish  refuse,  and  nearly  the  same  kind  of  gas  rises  from  plants  that  are 
decaying  in  swampy  places. 

As  soon  as  an  opening  is  made  through  the  rock  by  boring  into 
it,  the  gas,  which  is  associated  with  petroleum,  rushes  forth,  and  is 
conducted  away  in  pipes,  often  to  distant  places.  Thousands  of 
homes  in  Buffalo,  Pittsburg,  and  other  places  are  heated  with 
natural  gas  ;  and  in  many  factories,  too,  the  gas  is  used  for  fuel. 

Petroleum  also  flows  out  from  the  borings  or  oil  wells ;  but  f re- 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC   STATES 


79 


quently  it  must  be  pumped  out.  Near  the  oil  wells  cities  have  grown 
up,  such  as  Bradford  and  Oil  City  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Oleak 
in  New  York.  After  being  taken  from  the  earth,  the  petroleum  is 
stored  in  large  tanks  and  then  refined  (Fig.  71).  In  its  natural  state 
it  is  a  thick,  dark  yellow  or  reddish  yellow  fluid  ;  but  in  the  refinery 
it  is  changed  so  that  the  greater  part  of  it  becomes  clear,  colorless, 
kerosene  oil.  Benzine,  naphtha,  and  gasoline  are  also  made  from  it. 
The  thick  substances  left  after  the  refining  are  used  in  making  dyes 
of  various  kinds,  machine  oil,  vaseline,  and  paraffin. 

No  region  in  the  world  furnishes  so  much  oil  as  western  Pennsylvania, 
West  Virginia,  and  eastern  Ohio.  The  only  section  of  the  world  that  ap- 
proaches it  is  in  Eussia,  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  oil  business,  which  is 
one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  country,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Standard 


\                            1 

■  1 

Fig.  71. 
Oil  tanks  in  an  oil  refinery. 

Oil  Company,  which  has  absorbed  a  large  number  of  the  small  dealers. 
From  the  wells  the  oil  is  led  to  the  refineries  in  pipes  many  miles  long,  and 
the  company  owns  immense  numbers  of  special  tank  cars  for  carrying  the 
kerosene  all  over  the  country,  and  steamers  for  shipping  it  to  foreign  lands. 
Watch  for  one  of  the  tank  cars  and  describe  it. 

Iron  Ore.  —  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  enjoy  the  advan- 
tage of  having  within  their  own  borders  an  abundance,  not  only  of 
coal,  but  also  of  oil  and  gas  for  fuel.  Iron  ore  is  also  found  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia,  and  other  states.     Thus  both  the  raw  material  and 


80 


NORTH    AMERICA 


the  fuel  necessary  for  manufacturing  it  into  useful  articles  are  found 
almost  side  by  side.  Of  course  the  cities  of  the  neighboring  states, 
such  as  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  are  also  able  to  obtain  these 
materials. 

This  is  very  important,  since  iron  is  the  most  valuable  metal  for  manu- 
facturing that  exists.  Like  coal,  this  iron  ore  was  prepared  long  ago, 
though  in  a  very  different  manner,  as  follows.  Small  quantities  of  iron 
exist  in  many  minerals  and  rocks,  the  red  and  yellow  colors  of  many  soils 
being  due  to  it.  As  water  slowly  seeps  through  the  rocks  it  dissolves  the 
iron,  much  as  it  would  dissolve  salt  or  sugar  if  those  substances  were  there. 
In  some  places,  where  the  conditions  have  been  favorable,  the  water  has 
brought  quantities  of  the  iron  to  one  place  and  there  deposited  it,  forming 
beds,  or  veins  of  iron  ore,  and  it  is  these  that  are  now  being  mined. 

Sometimes  the  beds  lie  very  deep,  and  again  they  are  so  near  the  surface 
that  the  iron  ore  is  dug  out  of  great  open  pits,  as  stone  is  taken  from  quar- 
ries. In  appearance,  iron  ore  is  sometimes  a  hard,  black  mineral,  some- 
times a  soft,  loose,  yellowish  or  reddish  brown  earth.     It  is  not  iron  at  all, 

any  more  than  wheat  is  flour;  it  is 
only  the  iron  ore  mineral  out  of  which 
iron  may  be  made  by  a  great  deal  of 
work. 

Iron  and  Iron  Goods. — It  is 
easy  to  see  that  one  of  the  princi- 
pal industries  of  this  section  must 
be  connected  with  iron.  Two 
materials,  cohe  and  limestone^  are 
used  with  the  iron  ore  to  reduce  it 
to  the  metal.  The  coke  is  made 
from  bituminous  coal,  and  the 
limestone  is  obtained  in  quarries. 

To  obtain  coke,  coal  is  placed  in 
stone  or  brick  furnaces,  called  colce 
ovejis,  built  in  such  a  manner  that 
very  little  air  can  reach  the  coal, 
which  is  then  set  on  fire.  Many  of 
the  gases  that  form  a  part  of  coal 
are  thus  either  burned  up  or  driven  out.  One  of  these  gases  is  the  same 
as  that  which  is  used  for  street  lights  and  for  illununating  houses.  So 
little  air  is  let  into  the  ovens  that  not  all  substances  in  the  coal  are  burnt. 
The  part  left  is  the  very  light,  porous  coke  which  can  then  be  burned  and 
made  to  furnish  intense  heat,  if  supplied  with  plenty  of  air. 

In  reducing  iron  ore  to  iron,  more  coke  is  used  than  ore,  so  that 


Fig.  72. 
Blast  furnace. 


MIDDLE   ATLANTIC    STATES 


81 


it  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  mines  of  coal  and  iron  ore  near  each 
other.  The  coke,  iron  ore,  and  limestone  are  all  placed  together  in 
a  high,  tower-like  structure  called  a  blastfurnace  (Fig.  72),  so  named 
because  a  blast  of  air  is  forced  through  it  to  produce  a  strong  draught 
while  the  coke  is  burning. 

Such  great  heat  melts  the  ore  and  limestone ;  and  the  iron,  being 
heaviest,  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  fiery  hot  liquid.  The  limestone,  and 
those  elements  of  the  ore 
that  are  not  iron,  rise  to 
the  surface,  forming  sla^ 
' —  a  worthless  substance  that 
is  drawn  off  through  an 
opening  in  the  furnace  and 
thrown  away.  Through  a 
lower  opening,  the  iron  is 
run  off  into  trenches  made  of 
sand  on  a  sand  floor. 

There  is  one  main  trench 
withnumerous  side  branches, 
and  each  of  these  has  still 
smaller  branches  connected 
with  it,  as  in  Figure  73. 
When  the  molten  iron  cools, 
the  little  bars  of  iron,  called 

pig  iron,  are  attached  to  a  larger  one.  These  rough  bars,  which  may 
be  easily  lifted,  are  then  broken  off  and  shipped  away  to  be  made  into 
thousands  of  different  articles. 

Some  iron  goods,  such  as  stoves  and  the  iron  parts  of  your  desk,  are 
nothing  more  than  this  pig  iron  melted  and  cast,  in  molds,  into  the  shape 
that  is  desired.  This  is  cast  iron,  which  is  so  brittle  that  it  easily  breaks 
under  a  heavy  blow.  Other  materials,  such  as  knife  blades,  boiler  plates, 
rails  for  railways,  and  watch  springs,  are  made  of  steel.  This  also  is  made 
of  pig  iron,  though  after  it  has  been  greatly  hardened  and  strengthened 
by  an  expensive  process. 

Wrought  iron,  a  third  kind,  is  used  where  it  is  necessary  for  the  metal 
to  bend  and  yet  be  tough,  as  in  iron  wire. 

Almost  every  city  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  is  engaged  in 
iron  work  of  some  kind,  some  in  making  iron  and  steel  out  of  ore, 
others  in  manufacturing  iron  and  steel  goods.  For  example,  in  New 
York  State,  Buffalo  manufactures  car  wheels,  machinery,  and 
many  other  articles.  It  has  nearly  four  thousand  manufactories, 
many  of  them  making  iron  goods;  and  in  Ni:w  York  City  almost 
all  kinds  . of  Iron  goods  are  made.     Iron  and  steel  goods,  bicycles, 


Fig.  73. 

Molten   iron  running   out  of   a  blast  furnace  into 
trenches,  where  it  cools  to  form  pig  iron. 


82 


NOBTH    AMERICA 


etc.,  are  manufactured  in  Syracuse  ;  stoves  are  made  in  Albany 
and  Troy  ;  and  there  are  iron  foundries  in  Binghamton,  Elmira, 
and  Schenectady. 

In  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia  manufactures  steel  ships,  cars, 
and  hundreds  of  other  iron  goods  ;  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny 
make  steel  and  iron  goods  of  nearly  every  kind  ;  and  Scran- 
ton,  Reading, 
h  arrisburg, 
Erie,  Altoona, 
and  a  score  of 
other  places  have 
furnaces,  foun- 
dries, and  machine 
shops  for  iron 
•  manufacturing. 
In  New  Jersey, 
Jersey  City, 
Newark,  Cam- 
den, and  HoBO- 
KEN  manufacture 
iron  goods  ;  in 
Delaware,  Wil- 
mington is  noted 
for  its  cars  and 
steel  ships;  in 
Maryland,  Balti- 
more, like  Phila- 
delphia and  New 
York,  has  a  great 
variety  of  iron 
manufactures. 


Fig.  74. 
A  potter's  wheel  in  the  works  of  the  Trenton  Potteries  Company. 


Wheeling  in  West  Virginia  and  Roanoke  in  Virginia  are  also 
engaged  in  iron  manufacturing.  Almost  any  article  of  iron  that  you 
might  name  is  made  in  these  cities. 

The  importance  of  even  a  single  manufactory  is  proved  by  the  follow- 
ing facts  :  In  1899,  at  D.  M.  Osborne  Company's  works,  Auburn,  N.Y., 
where  farming  implements,  such  as  mowers,  rakes,  reapers,  and  harrows, 
are  made,  over  2700  men  are  employed,  making  one  complete  imple- 
ment every  40  seconds.  Each  year  these  men  and  their  families  consume 
about  9000  barrels  of  flour,  62,000  bushels  of  potatoes,  200,000  dozen  eggs, 


MIDDLE    ATLANTIC    STATES  88 

1,400,000  quarts  of  milk,  375,000  pounds  of  butter,  1,300,000  pounds 
of  meat,  besides  much  coffee,  tea,  and  sugar.  Since  they  also  need  to  buy 
clothes,  shoes,  etc.,  this  one  factory,  by  furnishing  the  money  for  all  these 
purchases,  helps  to  support  farmers,  storekeepers,  shoe  manufactories, 
railways,  and  many  other  industries  ;  but  since  it  is  the  farmer  who  buys 
the  implements,  it  is  he  who  has  caused  the  factory  to  be  needed.  One  is 
really  dependent  upon  the  other. 

Glass,  Pottery,  Bricks,  etc.  —  Three  other  mineral  products  are 
especially  worthy  of  note.  Glass  is  manufactured  at  and  near 
Pittsburg,  Wheeling,  and  many  other  places,  especially  where 
natural  gas  furnishes  cheap  fuel.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  former 
city  are  sands  which,  when  melted  and  mixed  with  other  substances, 
make  an  excellent  quality  of  glass.  Pittsburg  is  the  greatest  cen- 
ter for  plate  glass  in  the  country. 

In  and  near  Trenton,  N.J.,  there  is  a  kind  of  clay  which 
may  be  manufactured  into  pottery  of  a  very  high  grade,  and  pot- 
tery making  has  become  an  important  industry  in  that  city.  To 
make  such  earthenware  the  clay  is  shaped  by  skillful  workmen  into 
cups,  saucers,  vases,  etc.  (Fig.  74),  and  then  baked  until  it  is  hard. 

So  many  bricks  are  used  for  building,  that  brick  yards  are  found  in 
the  neighborhood  of  nearly  all  cities.  Bricks  are  made  of  clay,  which  is 
pressed  into  the  brick  shape  when  damp,  then  dried,  and  finally  baked. 
In  this  process  some  of  the  grains  melt,  so  that,  when  cooled  again,  they 
cling  together  like  stone.  The  clays  near  Philadelphia,  and  the  great 
clay  beds  of  the  Hudson  valley  above  New  York  City,  supply  an  abun- 
dance of  brick  for  these  great  cities. 


Largest  Cities  and  Chief  Shipping  Routes 

Location  of  New  York  City.  —  The  greatest  of  all  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  is  New  York,  which  contains  about  three  and  a  half 
million  inhabitants,  and  is  second  only  to  London  among  the  great 
cities  of  the  world.  There  are  several  other  large  cities  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity,  as  Jersey  City,  Newark,  Elizabeth,  Paterson, 
and  HOBOKEN  (Fig.  81),  all  across  the  Hudson  River  in  New  Jersey, 
but,  so  far  as  their  business  relations  are  concerned,  forming  a  part 
of  New  York  City.  Before  its  union  with  New  York,  the  great  city 
of  Brooklyn,  on  Long  Island,  was  fourth  among  the  cities  of  the 
country. 


84  KORTH   AMERICA 

Such  a  vast  collection  of  people  in  one  section  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  excellent  harbor  and  the  ease  with  which  goods  may  be  sent 
westward  by  water  and  by  rail,  making  this  the  principal  shipping 
point  in  America.  More  than  half  of  all  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
United  States  is  carried  on  through  this  port. 

The  tide  reaches  up  the  Hudson  above  Albany,  and  the  Erie 
Canal  extends  from  there  westward  to  Buffalo  (Fig.  60),  on  Lake 
Erie,  a  distance  of  350  miles.  From  that  point  one  is  able  to  go  by 
way  of  the  lakes  to  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Chicago,  and  Dulath.     Thus, 


r              m'.                  m    * 

"rB^. 

^^;--^-..rHi|*;>-,^.„         _     ^  J^i>r'"il--, 

■ml 

Fig.  75. 
Brooklyn  Bridge  in  New  York  City. 

by  the  aid  of  this  canal,  New  York  City  is  connected  by  water  with 
a  vast  inland  territory  which  is  highly  productive  and  thickly 
populated.  By  sea  New  York  is  connected  with  different  parts 
of  the  world,  and  steamships  are  constantly  entering  and  leaving 
its  harbor. 

Erie  Canal.  —  This  canal,  which  is  over  350  miles  long,  follows 
the  easiest  route  westward  from  the  Eastern  States,  the  route  used 
by  the  Indians  before  the  white  men  came.  Since  the  canal  is  only 
seventy  feet  wide  and  seven  feet  deep,  all  freight  coming  from  the 
West  in  lake  steamers,  and  intended  for  the  canal,  must  be  unloaded 
at  Buffalo,  and  placed  in  canal  boats.  These  clumsy-looking  boats 
are  made  with  broad,  flat  bottoms,  in  order  that  they  may  carry 
heavy  loads  without  sinking  deep  into  the  water.  They  are  drawn 
by  horses  or  mules  that  walk  along  the  tow  path  at  the  side. 

Since  the  Erie  Canal  was  completed,  in  1825,  the  cities  along 
its   route   and   on  the   Hudson  River  have   attained  great  impor- 


MIDDLE    ATLANTIC    STATES  85 

tance  (Fig.  60).  They  all  have  manufacturing  industries  and  use 
the  canal  for  obtaining  such  raw  materials  as  coal  and  iron,  and  for 
shipping  away  the  manufactured  goods.  Notice  especially  Lock- 
port,  situated  where  there  is  a  very  decided  slope  in  the  land,  neces- 


Fig.  76. 
Docks  at  Buffalo  in  1828.    The  city  at  that  time  had  less  than  8000  population. 

sitating  many  locks  (in  which  the  boats  are  raised  or  lowered  from 
one  level  to  another)  in  the  canal ;  hence  the  name  (Fig.  61).  The 
State  of  New  York  is  now  expending  over  $100,000,000  in  enlarging 
this  canal. 

Several  other  canals  have  been  built  in  New  York,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Figure  60 :  point  them  out  and  explain  their  importance.  The  smaller 
lakes  and  the  Hudson  Kiver  are  also  made  use  of  as  a  part  of  the 
canal  system ;  but  upon  these  larger  bodies  of  water  a  number  of  canal 
boats  is  firmly  lashed  together  and  taken  in  tow  by  a  small  steamer  or 
tug  boat. 

Railways  of  New  York.  —  Canals  furnish  a  very  slow  method  of 
conveyance  ;  consequently,  soon  after  the  use  of  steam  was  dis- 
covered, men  began  to  build  railways.  The  New  York  Central 
Railway,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  United  States,  extends 
from  the  ver}!-  heart  of  New  York  City  up  the  Hudson  to  Albany 
(Fig.  81),  where  it  connects  with  Boston  trains.  From  Albany 
westward  to  Buffalo  the  route  is  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Erie  Canal. 

Several  other  railways  connect  New  York  with  the  West, 
crossing  the  Appalachians  at  various  points,  some  passing  through 
Buffalo,  which  is  a  great  railway  center,  as  well  as  an  important 
lake  port  (Fig.  77).  At  Buffalo  immense  quantities  of  grain,  flour, 
lumber,  and  iron  from  the  West  are  transferred  from  lake  vessels  to 


Fig.  77. 
Map  showing  location  of  Buffalo  and  vicinity. 


MIDDLE   ATLANTIC    STATES 


87 


Fig.  78. 
A  New  York  ferry. 


canal  boats  or   railways,  while  coal  and  manufactured  goods  are 
shipped  from  the  East  westward. 

The  Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  64),  about  twenty  miles  away,  supply  Buffalo 
with  a  great  abundance  of  electric  power.  All  the  street  cars  are  run  by 
it,  and  many  factories  besides.  Electric  cars,  run  by  Niagara  power,  go 
from  Buffalo  to  Lockport  and  to  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls.  The 
latter  place  has  become  an  im- 
portant manufacturing  city  be- 
cause of  the  power  furnished  by 
the  immense  Niagara  cataract. 

Since  the  Hudson  Eiver  is 
about  a  mile  in  width  at  its 
mouth,  most  of  the  railways 
reaching  New  York  from  the 
West  and  South  cannot  ente)- 
the  city.  They  have  their  ter- 
minals just  across  the  river  at 
HoBOKEN  or  Jersey  City  in 
New  Jersey.  Because  of  this 
the  latter  city  is  one  of  the 
great  railway  centers  of  the  country.  From  these  points  passengers  and 
freight  are  conveyed  across  the  river  in  ferries  (Fig.  78),  whole  trains  often 
being  taken  upon  one  boat. 

New  York  City.  —  New  York  City  is  not  only  the  greatest  shipping 
point  in  North  America,  but,  together  with  the  neighboring  cities, 
the  greatest  manufacturing  center  as  well.  The  place  from  which 
goods  are  most  easily  shipped  in  all  directions  is,  for  that  very  reason, 
one  of  the  best  places  for  manufacturing.  Nearly  every  manufactured 
article  that  human  beings  need  is  made  in  or  near  New  York  ;  but 
one  of  the  most  extensive  industries  is  the  manufacture  of  clothing. 
Cotton  and  woolen  goods  are  sent  from  the  New  England  factories 
to  New  York  to  be  made  into  such  articles  as  dresses,  men's  suits,  and 
underclothing,  and  then  shipped  away.  Large  buildings,  in  which  hun- 
dreds of  men  and  women  are  employed,  are  given  up  to  this  one  work. 
Iron  and  coal  are  so  near  at  hand  that  the  manufacture  of  iron 
goods  is  another  great  industry.  The  refining  of  petroleum  is  a 
third,  the  oil  being  led  in  pipes  from  the  oil  fields  of  western  Penn- 
sylvania to  great  refineries  in  New  Jersey,  near  the  metropolis.  The 
refining  of  sugar  is  another  immense  business  in  and  near  New 
York,  as  at  Jersey  CiTi^  and  Brooklyn  ;  and  there  are  hundreds 
»f  other  manufacturing  industries.  More  books,  magazines,  and 
newspapers  are   published   in  New  York   than   in  any   other  city 


S8 


NORTH    AMERICA 


in  the  Union  ;  and  so  much  wealth  is  collected  there  that  the  Nev 

York  banks  largely  control  the  great  business  undertakings  of  all 

parts  of  the  country. 

At  the  southern  end  of  Manhattan  Island,  on  which  much  of  New 

York  is  built,  there  are  about  eight  square  miles  of  the  city  given 

up  almost  exclusively  to  the  whole- 
sale trade.  For  the  sake  of  space 
many  of  the  great  office  build- 
ings are  from  eight  to  thirty- 
two  stories  in  height.  In  this 
part  of  New  York  are  collected 
such  goods  as  are  manufactured 
in  the  city  or  are  brought  to  it 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Mer- 
chants in  Denver,  Louisville,  St. 
Paul,  Galveston,  Indianapolis,  and 
other  cities,  purchase  these  goods 
for  their  stores.  In  return  the 
Western  and  Southern  people  send 
grain,  meat,  sugar,  etc.,  to  this 
great  city.  Thus  we  daily  depend 
upon  one  another  for  our  living, 
even  though  our  homes  are  far 
apart. 

The  contrast  between  life  in  New 
York  City  and  upon  a  farm  (p.  121) 
is  striking. 

Families  whose  homes  are  in  the 
city  do  not  usually  occupy  a  whole 
house;  but  many  live  in  large  build- 
ings, in  which  hundreds  of  other 
people  also  live.  Such  a  structure, 
called  an  apartment  building,  is  com- 
monly from  six  to  eight  stories  high, 
and  is  so  arranged  that  one  family 
occupies   only   a   small  part  of  one 


l^^ir  . 


Fig.  79. 

The  Park  Row  Building,  New  York  City. 
(Copyrighted  hy  Geo.  P.  Hall  &  Son, 
N.  Y.,  1900.) 


floor,  or  a  flat.  Other  families  live  above  and  below,  as  well  as  on  each 
side,  being  separated  by  only  a  few  inches  of  brick  or  boards. 

Since  land  is  so  valuable,  sometimes  costing  scores  of  dollars  a  square 
foot,  there  is  commonly  neither  front  nor  back  yard. 

In  the  poorer  sections  of  the  city,  the  people  are  even  more  densely 
crowded.     Some  of  the  children  have  never  seen  the  country,  and  scarcely 


MIDDLE    ATLANTIC    STATES 


S9 


any  birds,  trees,  or  grass,  except  possibly  in  one  of  the  city  parks.    In 
these  sections  there  are  many  foreigners  from  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

To  escape  the  necessity  of  living  in  crowded  city  homes,  tens  of 
thousands  of  men  have  their  dwellings  in  suburban  towns  or  country 
homes,  from  ten  to  forty  miles  from  their  places  of  business.  They 
spend  from  one  to  three  hours  daily  traveling  back  and  forth.  A  part  of 
the  time  they  ride  upon  elevated  railways  that  are  built  in  the  street, 
two,  three,  and  four  stories 
above  the  ground,  and  sup- 
ported by  iron  columns  (Fig. 
80). 

How  different  all  this  is 
from  the  country,  where  only 
two  or  three  houses  are  to 
be  seen  at  a  time!  Where 
sunlight  and  fresh  air  enter 
one's  home  from  all  sides  of 
the  building  I  Where  there 
is  plenty  of  room  to  play, 
with  green  grass,  large  trees, 
and  singing  birds  in  the 
yard!  No  wonder  that 
people  living  in  great  cities 
are  anxious  to  visit  the 
country,  the  mountains,  the 
lakes,  and  the  seashore, 
during  a  few  weeks  in  the 
summer. 

Largely  owing  to  the 
enormous  population  of 
New  York  City,  with  its 
immense  manufacturing 
interests  and  great  wealth,  New  York  is  called  the  Empire  State, 
ranking  first  in  the  Union  in  population,  manufacturing,  commerce, 
and  wealth  (Figs.  206  and  236). 


L..  /    -  ' 

■  1   ^ 

iiai';^'?i 

■w^l^  :;    -.  '^ 

^^    W      ■-.  .;--^-; 

•■=,n 

\  '"    "    ,'" ^          ■•   ■ 

I^^.  1 

_\«irjB. 

"■  '^»^'* 

-     ■-~^:nl"-'' 

r 

1 

■if 

J 

1 

j  » 

i 

1 

Fig.  80. 
An  elevated  railway  in  New  York. 


New  York  State  is  prominent  for  its  educational  institutions  also.  In 
New  York  City  is  Columbia  University ;  and  at  Ithaca,  on  Lake  Cayuga, 
in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  is  Cornell  University.  Both  of  these 
should  be  associated  with  Princeton  University  in  New  Jersey,  and  Har- 
vard and  Yale  universities  in  New  England,  as  among  the  most  important 
educational  institutions  in  the  country.  In  Virginia  is  the  very  old  and 
well-known  University  of  Virginia.  Besides  this,  north  of  New  York 
City,  on  the  Hudson  River,  is  West  Point,  the  place  where  the  jfovem- 


\  >  BeTuiington 


'/'  Hartfoi|(r^ 


V  \ 


\  \  \ 


\         \ 


N  T  I  C      O  C  E  A  N 


SCALE  Of  MILES 


Fig.  81. 
New  York  City  and  yicinity. 

•i 


Fia.  82. 
Hap  to  show  the  location  of  Baltimore  and  Washinjrton 

m 


92 


NORTH    AMERICA 


ment  school  for  the  training  of  army  officers  is  located.  Also  at  Pough- 
KEEPSiE  is  Vassar,  one  of  the  great  colleges  for  women,  like  Smith  and 
Wellesley  in  Massachusetts,  and  Bryn  Mawr  near  Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia  and  its  Chief  Shipping  Routes.  —  The  leading  cities 
southwest  of  New  York  are  located  along  the  fall  line.  Name  them 
as  far  as  Richmond  (Fig.  59).  The  greatest  is  Philadelphia,  which 
is  the  third  in  size  in  the  Union,  containing  about  1,300,000  inhab- 
itants.    As  in  the  case  of  New  York,  other  important  cities  are  near 


Fig.  83. 
One  of  our  great  war  ships  ready  to  be  launched. 

by,  as  Trenton  and  Camden,  New  Jersey,  Chester  and  Norris- 
TOWN,  Pennsylvania,  and  Wilmington,  Delaware.  Water  deep 
enough  for  ocean  vessels  extends  as  far  inland  as  Philadelphia,  and 
its  nearness  to  the  coal  fields  renders  it  a  great  shipping  point  for 
coal,  which  is  sent  to  New  England  and  the  Southern  States. 

As  in  the  case  of  New  York,  great  railway  lines  enter  Philadelphia, 
connecting  it  not  only  with  the  other  cities  of  Pennsylvania,  such 
as  Harrisburg,  the  capital,  and  Pittsburg,  but  also  with  the 
North,  South,  and  West.  Among  these  lines  are  the  Pennsylvania 
Railway,  and   the   Baltimore   and    Ohio,    two   of    the   greatest  of 


MIDDLE    ATLANTIC  STATES 


98 


the  country.     There  are  also  many  steamship  lines  from  Philadel- 
phia (Fig.  81). 

A  number  of  canals  has  been  built  in  Pennsylvania,  as  in  New 
York  ;  but  owing  to  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country,  there 
is  no  canal  connection  between  Philadelphia  and  the  Great  Lakes. 
Therefore  Erie,  the  city  in  Pennsylvania  which  would  most  naturally 
compare  with  Buffalo,  is  much  smaller;  but  being  near  the  coal 
and  iron,  it  is  ^n  important  manufacturing  city. 

Philadelphia  and  the  neighboring  city  of  Camden,  being  good 
shipping  points,  are  also  great  manufacturing  centers.  The  coal  and 
iron  near  by  lead  to  the  manufacture  of  cars,  heavy  machinery,  and 
steel  ships  (Fig.  83)  at  Phela- 
DELPHiA  and  Wilmington. 
Great  quantities  of  clothing  are 
also  made  in  Philadelphia,  as  in 
Boston  and  New  York ;  and  in 
carpet  manufacture  Philadelphia 
is  the  most  important  city  in  the 
country. 


Philadelphia  is  called  the  Quaker 
City,  having  been  founded  by  Wil- 
liam Penn  and  other  Quakers,  many 
of  "whose  descendants  still  live  there. 
It  was  the  home  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, and  for  a  number  of  years,  before 
Washington  was  built,  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  United  States.  Inde- 
pendence Hall  is  still  preserved,  in 


Fia.  84. 


Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia. 


which  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  made  and  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  was  drawn  up.  The  leading  educational  institution 
there  is  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Baltimore.  —  At  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  in  Maryland,  is  the 
beautiful  city  of  Baltimore,  the  sixth  in  size  in  the  United  States. 
Since  it  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  connected  with  the  West  by  rail- 
ways (Fig.  82),  and  also  has  access  to  the  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Virginia,  Baltimore  has  become  a  noted  manufacturing  city 
and  shipping  port,  like  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  New  York.  Like 
them,  also,  it  has  a  multitude  of  manufacturing  interests. 


Baltimore  is  the  seat  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  j  and  a  few  miles 


94 


NORTH   AMERICA 


south,  at  Annapolis,  is  the  United  States  Naval  Academy,  which  prepares 
officers  for  the  navy,  as  West  Point  educates  men  for  the  army. 

District  of  Columbia.  —  Southwest  of  Baltimore,  on  the  Potomac 
River,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  is  the  beautiful  city  of  Wash- 
ington, our  national  capital  (Fig.  85).  When  first  set  aside,  this 
district  was  near  the  center  of  the  settled  part  of  the  country. 

Washington  is  unlike  other  cities  in  two  respects.  In  the  first 
place,  since  there  was  a  certainty  that  it  would  one  day  be  very 
large,  it  was  carefully  planned,  with  wide  streets  and  many  parks. 


Fig.  85. 
The  National  Capitol,  at  Washington. 

In  the  second  place,  the  inhabitants  are  not  chiefly  interested,  as 
in  other  large  cities,  in  manufacturing  and  commerce.  Here  reside 
the  President  and  his  cabinet,  members  of  Congress,  foreign  ambas- 
sadors, and  other  representatives  of  the  great  nations  of  the  world. 
Besides  these  there  are  about  twenty  thousand  men  and  women  en- 
gaged in  the  work  of  the  different  departments  of  the  government. 
The  chief  buildings,  therefore,  are  not  factories  and  private  office 
buildings,  but  great  government  buildings  (Fig.  85). 

Richmond  and  Norfolk.  —  Richmond,  the  largest  city  of  Virginia, 
is  at  the  head  of  tide  water  on  the  James  River.  It  is,  therefore,  an 
important  shipping  point,  as  is  also  Norfolk  on  the  coast.  What 
other  cities  are  in  this  vicinity  ?  Name  the  rivers  of  the  state  which 
cut  through  some  of  the  Appalachian  ranges.     It  was  along  one  of 


MIDDLE    ATLANTIC    STATES  95 

these  routes,  through  Cumberland  Gap,  that  the  early  settlers  passed 
to  found  the  states  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The  water  gaps 
have  made  it  possible  for  railways  to  connect  the  iron  and  coal  mines 
of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  with  the  coast,  so  that  several  of  the 
coast  cities  are  very  important  shipping  points,  especially  for  coal. 

More  than  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  Virginia  are  engaged  in 
agriculture,  and  farm  products  are,  therefore,  important  articles  for 
transportation.  One  of  the  most  fertile  farming  sections  in  the 
country  is  the  limestone  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  in  which  the 
famous  Luray  Cave  and  Natural  Bridge  are  situated.  Locate  these 
(Fig.  62).  Richmond  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a  leading 
market  for  tobacco  ;  and  Norfolk  is  a  great  shipping  point  for 
cotton. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Review  Questions  and  Topics.  —  (1)  Describe  the  physiography  of  these 
states  :  —  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ;  the  Piedmont  plateau ;  the  coastal  plains ; 
the  fall  line  and  its  importance ;  the  effect  of  the  mountain  barrier  on  westward 
migration  ;  the  effect  of  the  glacier;  the  coast  line.     (2)    Tell  about  the  climate  : 

—  its  variations,  and  their  effects  on  crops  and  seashore  resorts.  (3)  Tell  about 
the  forests :  —  where  they  are  ;  what  trees  they  contain ;  cities ;  national  forests. 
(4)  What  fish  are  found  along  the  coast?  (5)  Describe  the  oyster  fishing. 
(6)  What  cities  are  noted  for  their  oyster  industry  ?  (7)  Where  is  farming  carried 
on?     What  kinds?     (8)    Describe  dairying.     (9)   Describe  the  tobacco  industry : 

—  the  first  use  of  the  weed;  where  raised;  at  what  cities  manufactured;  the 
tobacco  plant;  uses  to  which  it  is  put.  (10)  Tell  about  fruit  raising:  —  where 
carried  on ;  kinds ;  uses  to  which  each  is  put ;  cities  that  are  greatly  benefited 
by  the  industry.  (11)  State  how  farming  and  other  industries  are  dependent  on 
one  another.  (12)  Tell  about  salt :  —  how  formed;  where  found;  how  obtained. 
(13)  State  what  you  can  about  coal :  —  tell  how  coal  was  formed ;  how  the  two  kinds 
differ;  why  some  anthracite  is  left;,  to  what  uses  it  is  put;  how  it  is  mined;  the 
cities  it  has  helped  to  locate ;  how  the  miners  live.  (14)  Tell  the  story  of  petroleum 
and  natural  gas  :  —  where  found ;  how  obtained  ;  to  what  uses  put.  (15)  Do  the 
same  for  iron  ore.  (16)  Describe  the  process  of  obtaining  pig  iron.  (17)  In  what 
three  forms  is  iron  used  ?  Mention  some  of  the  articles  made  of  each.  (18)  Name 
the  principal  cities  engaged  in  the  iron  manufacture.  Find  each  on  the  map. 
(19)  In  what  ways  are  the  farmers  and  the  employees  of  the  factory  at  Auburn  of 
use  to  one  another?  (20)  Tell  about  each  of  the  other  kinds  of  manufacturing 
mentioned.  (21)  For  what  is  each  of  the  cities  important?  Find  each  on  the 
map.  (22)  What  large  cities  are  near  New  York?  (23)  By  what  water  route  are 
New  York  and  Albany  connected  ?  (24)  New  York  and  Buffalo  ?  (25)  Describe 
the  Erie  Canal:  —  its  value;  how  boats  pass  over  it;  the  cities  it  has  helped  to 
locate.  (26)  Why  has  Buffalo  grown  so  large  ?  (27)  Jersey  City?  (28)  Describe 
New  York  City :  —  its  location ;  how  it  is  connected  with  other  sections ;  the  in- 
dustries; its  influence  upon  other  cities;  how  the  people  live;  how  they  travel 
about ;  how  their  life  differs  from  life  in  the  country.  (29)  What  universities  are 
mentioned?    Where  is  each?     (30)    Tell  about  Philadelphia:  —  why  it  has  be- 


95  NORTH  AMERICA 

come  so  large;  cities  near  by;  other  cities;  other  facts  mentioned.  (31)  For 
what  is  Baltimore  noted?  (32)  What  cities  near  by?  (33)  What  city  in  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  ?    What  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  ? 

Review  by  States:  New  York  (N.Y.).  —  (1)  Where  are  the  mountains? 
(2)  What  are  their  names?  (3)  What  are  the  industries  there  ?  Why  not  agri- 
culture among  the  mountains  ?  (4)  What  about  the  relief  of  the  rest  of  the  state  ? 
(5)  What  effect  has  that  upon  agriculture?  (6)  What  waters  form  parts  of  the 
boundary  of  the  state  ?  (7)  Into  what  rivers  do  the  lakes  empty  ?  (8)  What 
rivers  drain  New  York?  (9)  State  clearly  the  importance  of  the  Erie  Canal. 
(10)  Which  cities  mentioned  in  the  text  are  on  the  canal  or  on  the  Hudson  ?  In 
what  industry  is  each  engaged?  (11)  What  other  cities  of  New  York  are  men- 
tioned ?  For  what  is  each  important  ?  (12)  Compare  New  York  in  size  with  all 
of  New  England.  Remember  that  the  scales  of  the  two  maps  are  different. 
(13)  Draw  a  map  of  New  York  like  that  of  Maine  (p.  65).  When  studying  each 
of  the  other  states,  do  the  same  for  it. 

New  Jersey  (N.J.).  —  (14)  Why  should  peaches  grow  better  in  New  Jersey 
than  in  New  England  ?  (15)  Name  and  locate  each  of  the  cities  mentioned  in  the 
text.  For  what  is  each  important  ?  (16)  Make  a  list  of  the  five  largest  cities  in 
New  Jersey,  and  compare  them  with  the  five  largest  in  New  York.  (For  their 
populations,  see  Appendix,  pp.  iv-vi.)  (17)  In  what  ways  are  some  of  the  larg- 
est cities  dependent  upon  the  products  of  Pennsylvania  ?  (18)  Add  together  the 
populations  of  all  the  large  cities  near  New  York  (see  map.  Fig.  62)  to  see  how 
large  it  would  be  if  it  could  include  those  in  New  Jersey. 

Pennsylvania  (Pa.  or  Penn.).  —  (19)  Where  would  you  look  for  the  best  farm 
land?  (20)  The  principal  forests?  (21)  The  leading  coal  mines ?  (22)  Where 
are  the  principal  cities?  Why  located  where  they  are?  (23)  Make  a  list  of  the 
five  largest  cities,  and  compare  their  size  with  the  five  largest  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey.  (24)  Why  are  there  fewer  lakes  in  Pennsylvania  than  in  New  York  ? 
(25)  Should  you  expect  to  find  fewer  waterfalls  also  ?  (See  p.  15.)  (26)  Why, 
then,  is  manufacturing  so  important  in  this  state  ?  (27)  What  kind  of  manufac- 
turing is  especially  important  ?  Why  ?  (28)  What  advantage  do  you  see  in  the 
position  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  at  the  junction  of  two  rivers?  (29)  Through 
what  states  would  one  pass  in  going  by  boat  from  Pittsburg  to  the  gulf  ?  (See 
map.  Fig.  44.)  (30)  Measure  the  length  and  width  of  Pennsylvania.  Also  find 
its  area  (Appendix,  p.  iii).  Remember  that  number,  for  in  many  of  our  maps 
the  outline  of  Pennsylvania  is  used  to  show  the  comparative  size  of  other  sections. 
(31)  Is  Pennsylvania  larger  or  smaller  than  New  York?  Virginia?  New  Eng- 
land ?     (32)    Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  the  state  you  live  in  ?    How  much  ? 

Delaware  (Del.).  —  (33)  Which  is  the  principal  city  in  this  state?  (34)  For 
what  is  it  noted?  (35)  Why  is  it  especially  well  situated  for  that  industry? 
(36)  Compare  its  size  with  New  York,  Buffalo,  Pittsburg,  and  Albany.  (37)  The 
principal  industries  of  the  state  are  fruit  raising  and  farming.  What  two  reasons 
can  you  give  why  it  is  well  fitted  for  these  ?  (38)  Have  you  ever  eaten  any 
Delaware  fruit  ? 

Maryland  (Md.) .  —  (39)  In  which  section  is  farming  most  important  ?  Why  ? 
(40)  Of  what  importance  are  the  mountains?  (41)  Notice  how  branching  Chesa- 
peake Bay  is.  Why  is  it  so  irregular  ?  (42)  What  influence  should  you  think 
this  would  have  upon  the  number  of  oysters  found  there?  (43)  Why  is  Baltimore 
favorably  situated  for  receiving  coal  and  iron  from  Pennsylvania?  (44)  For  can- 
ning fruit,  vegetables,  and  oysters?  (46)  What  would  be  the  effect  upon  the 
growth  of  Baltimore  if  the  land  should  rise  again  so  that  Chesapeake  Bay  disap- 


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Fig.  87. 

Map  Questions.  —  (1)  In  what  three  parts  of  this  section  are  mountains  found  ? 
(2)  What  are  the  names  of  the  mountains?  (3)  Which  states  have  no  mountains? 
(4)  What  are  the  principal  tributaries  to  the  largest  river  of  the  section?  (5)  Through 
what  states  would  you  pass  in  going  by  water  from  New  Orleans  to  Chattanooga? 
(6)  Find  some  natural  boundaries  in  this  section.    (7)  Compare  the  coast  with  that  of  New 


V       .        .    Cincinnati       ~       \  "^         [\   A\ 


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,  Memphis  {  Chjsttanooa*-^        1^ -/-' 

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^        Besfeemeri    yjl^       J       \       l___Xs-----^%Mli     ^v2har1*»*** 
'Tuscalc^osa       ;     y\ \ TMaS^"^^ 


SOUTHERN  STATES 

EASTERN  SECTION 


Scale  of  Miles 


n  <St3Hittt  (i)  Olhei  Cttl«» 

.  POATES'tNGRIS CO^It.Y. 


Longitude 


Greenwich        81" 


England.  Why  the  difference?  (8)  Why  are  there  so  few  lakes?  (9)  The  rivers  that  rise 
in  western  Texas  —  as  the  Colorado — are  often  perfectly  dry  in  the  western  third  of  their 
course.  Why?  (10)  Name  the  states  in  this  group.  (11)  Find  the  capital  of  each. 
(12)  Which  of  the  states  have  a  seacoast  ?  (13)  Which  have  none  ?  (14)  Which  border  the 
Mississippi  ?  (15)  Which  drain  into  that  river?  (16)  Can  you  gjve  reasons  why  the  largest 
oily  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi? 


Fig.  88. 
Map  to  show  the  location  of  New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Birmingliam,  and  Atlanta. 


MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES  97 

peared  and  the  Susquehanna  flowed  through  it  ?  (46)  Compare  the  size  of  Balti- 
more with  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston. 

Virginia  (Va.).  — In  what  other  state  is  the  capital  the  most  important  city? 
(47)  Describe  the  tobacco  industry.  (48)  Which  cities  are  engaged  in  its  manu- 
facture? (49)  What  river  separates  Virginia  from  Maryland?  (50)  What  river 
crosses  the  middle  of  Virginia?  (51)  Compare  Richmond  in  size  with  Albany. 
(52)    How  does  Virginia  rank  in  iron  production  (Fig.  222)? 

West  Virginia  (W.  Va.).  —  (53)  What  disadvantage  is  it  to  this  state  that  it 
has  no  seacoast  ?  (54)  How  would  we  reach  the  ocean  by  water  from  West  Vir- 
ginia? (55)  Where  is  the  largest  city ?  Why  there?  (56)  How  does  it  compare 
in  size  with  Pittsburg?  (57)  Should  you  expect  to  find  much  forest  in  this  state? 
(58)  Much  farming?  (59)  Coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas  are  found 
there.     Of  what  value  are  these?     (60)    What  mountain  range  in  the  east? 

General.  —  (61)  Describe  the  surface  features  of  this  group  of  states  from  the 
relief  map  (Fig.  63) .  (62)  Describe  the  differences  in  climate  in  the  different  parts. 
(63)  State  the  principal  industries  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  (64)  Make  a 
list  of  the  ten  largest  cities.  Add  their  populations  together,  and  compare  the 
result  with  the  ten  largest  in  New  England.     (See  Appendix,  pp.  iv-vi.) 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Collect  pictures  of  Niagara  Falls.  Learn  something 
about  the  use  of  Niagara  power.  (2)  Examine  a  live  oyster  or  clam,  to  see  what 
holds  the  shells  together.  What  do  you  suppose  is  the  object  of  the  shell? 
(3)  The  duty  paid  to  the  United  States  government  on  a  pound  of  smoking 
tobacco  is  12  cents.  How  much  is  that  per  ounce?  (4)  Find  where  the  canned 
fruits  and  vegetables  in  your  neighboring  grocery  store  have  come  from.  (5)  Make 
a  collection  of  the  kinds  of  coal.  Of  coke  and  iron  ore.  (6)  In  small  bottles 
collect  the  products  made  from  petroleum.  (7)  Collect  samples  of  cast  iron, 
wrought  iron,  and  steel.  (8)  Estimate  on  the  map  (Fig.  44)  the  distance  by  water 
from  New  York  City  to  Duluth.  (9)  Find  the  population  in  the  ten  largest  cities 
along  the  Great  Lakes  by  adding  the  numbers  given  in  the  Appendix.  (10)  Are 
there  any  canals  in  California?  (11)  Why  are  locks  in  canals  necessary?  (12) 
Give  reasons  why  freight  rates  on  canals  are  cheaper  than  those  on  railways.  (13) 
Write  a  composition,  giving  the  reasons  why  one  might  prefer  to  live  in  a  large  city; 
why  one  might  prefer  to  live  in  the  country.  (14)  Collect  pictures  of  scenes  in  a 
large  city ;  in  the  country.  (15)  Can  you  give  a  reason  why  the  Erie  Canal  should 
have  reached  to  Lake  Erie  instead  of  to  Ontario?  (16)  Make  a  drawing  of  these 
states,  including  the  principal  rivers  and  cities.     Locate  the  capitals. 

For  References,  see  2'eachers  Book. 


VII.     SOUTHERN   STATES 


Physiography.  —  Almost  the  entire  area  included  in  this  group  of 
states  is  made  up  of  plains.  The  most  level  portions  are  the  delta 
and  flood  plain  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  coastal  plains,  which  skirt 
the  entire  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Southern  States  (Fig.  43). 

The  coastal  plains  are  very  level ;  and, 
since  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  they  are  often 
swampy,  especially  near  the  rivers.  Their 
higher  portions  are  more  irregular  and 
better  drained ;  but,  since  the  soil  is  sandy, 
there  are  large  areas  which  are  too  barren 
for  agriculture  and  are  therefore  still  cov- 
ered by  an  open  pine  forest. 

West  of  the  coastal  plains  that  border 
the  Atlantic,  and  separated  from  them  by 
the  fall  line  (Fig.  59),  is  the  still  higher 
Piedmont  plateau,  which  extends  to  the  base 
of  the  Appalachians.  The  Piedmont  sec- 
tion has  a  good  drainage  and  excellent  soil, 
so  that  it  is  the  seat  of  extensive  agriculture, 
especially  cotton  and  tobacco  raising.  This 
plateau  slopes  gradually  from  the  base  of  the 
Appalachians,  where  its  elevation  is  about 
1000  feet  above  sea  level,  to  the  fall  line, 
where  the  elevation  of  the  plain  is  from  100 
to  500  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  really  a 
region  of  old  mountains  worn  down  to  a 
rolling  and,  in  places,  slightly  hilly  plain. 
On  Figure  88  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  with  their  rich  coal 
beds,  continue  southwestward  from  Virginia  into  Alabama.  In 
the  Southern  States  these  mountains  are  generally  low,  as  they  are 
in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States ;  but  in  western  North  Carolina  and 
eastern  Tennessee  the  mountains  are  much  higher. 

08 


Fig.  89. 

An  oil  "  gusher,"  Spindle  Top 
oil  field,  Beaumont,  Texas. 


SOUTHERN    STATES  99 

As  in  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  there  is  a  rough  plateau 
west  of  the  Appalachians.  This  plateau  is  deeply  cut  by  river 
valleys,  and  is  so  rugged  that  it  is  still  covered  by  extensive  forests 
and  has  few  inhabitants.  Still  farther  west  are  the  broad  and  fertile 
plains  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  of  Texas.  These  are  interrupted 
by  some  low  mountains  in  Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  and  Texas. 

In  western  Texas  the  plains  rise  until  they  become  high  plateaus, 
reaching  an  elevation  of  4000  to  5000  feet  near  the  base  of  the  spurs 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  extend  into  Texas. 

The  coast  line  is  much  more  regular  than  that  of  New  England.  As 
has  been  stated  (p.  17),  this  part  of  the  continent  has  been  raised  instead 
of  lowered.  However,  after  the  continental  shelf  was  lifted  enough  to 
form  the  coastal  plains,  there  came  a  slight  sinking,  though  much  less 
than  in  New  England.  This  sinking  has  admitted  the  ocean  waters  into 
the  valleys,  forming  shallow  bays  and  poor  harbors.  Sand  bars,  built  by 
waves  and  tides,  have  made  these  harbors  even  poorer ;  and  each  year 
large  sums  of  money  are  spent  by  the  government  in  dredging  the  sand 
away  from  the  harbor  entrances. 

Bars  are  built,  not  only  opposite  the  bays,  but  also  where  the  storm 
waves  break  in  the  shallow  water  off  shore.  It  is  in  this  way  that 
Capes  Hatteras  and  Fear  have  been  built,,  as  well  as  the  long  chain  ol 
bars  along  the  low  southern  coast.  The  waves  throw  the  sand  up  in 
banks,  and  the  winds  pile  it  still  higher,  forming  sand  dunes.  These  facts 
partly  explain  the  reason  why  there  are  not  so  many  large  coast  cities  in 
the  South  as  there  are  along  the  irregular  northern  coast. 

Still  another  kind  of  coast  is  found  in  southern  Florida,  where  count- 
less millions  of  coral  polyps  live  in  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 
These  have  built  the  limestone  rock  which  forms  the  southern  part  of  the 
Florida  peninsula  and  also  the  many  reefs  and  small  islands,  or  keysy 
.which  lie  just  south  of  Florida. 

Climate.  —  The  low  plains  of  the  Southern  States  lie  so  far  south 
that  the  climate  is  everywhere  warm ;  and  the  damp  winds  from  the 
Gulf  bring  an  abundant  rainfall  to  them.  These  conditions  make 
it  possible  to  raise  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  rice,  which  cannot  be 
grown  in  the  colder  Northern  States.  In  southern  Florida,  semi- 
tropical  and  even  tropical  fruits  are  easily  raised.  Among  the 
Florida  fruits  are  oranges,  lemons,  pineapples  (Fig.  90),  cocoanuts, 
and  bananas.     What  is  the  latitude  of  southern  Florida? 

During  the  cold  and  disagreeable  Northern  winter,  the  Southern  weather 
is  mild,  like  spring  and  autumn  in  the  North.  Flowers  are  in  blossom 
and  birds  are  singing,  many  of  them  having  migrated  there  for  the  winter. 
Large  numbers  of  Northern  people  also  go  South  to  spend  the  winter  at 


100 


NORTH    AMERICA 


such  resorts  as  Jacksonville  and  St.  Augustine.     The  latter,  founded 
in  1565,  is  one  of  the  early  Spanish  settlements.     One  of  the  important 

winter  industries  of  the  inhabitants 
is  the  entertainment  of  winter 
visitors. 

While  Northern  people  travel 
South  in  winter  to  escape  the  cold, 
many  Southerners  go  North  in  sum- 
mer to  escape  the  heat.  Others 
summer  among  the  high  mountains, 
where  the  climate  is  cool  even  in 
midsummer.  The  best-known 
mountain  resort  is  Asheville  in 
North  Carolina.  In  some  places, 
as  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas,  there 
are  mineral  springs,  to  which  people 
resort  to  be  cured  of  certain  diseases. 


Fig.  90. 
The  pineapple  growing  in  Florida. 


M^wm 


Western  Texas  has  a  different 
climate  from  the  other  parts  of 
the  South.  Being  too  far  from 
the  sea  to  be  reached  by  damp  winds,  it  receives  little  rain.  The  occu- 
pations are  influenced  accordingly.  As  one  travels  westward  from 
the  Gulf,  he  passes  from  the  warm,  damp,  coastal  plains  to  a  semi-arid 
country.  At  first  there  are  dense  forests ;  then  come  plains  with 
scattered  trees,  especially 
the  live  oak  (Fig.  91)  ; 
beyond  these  are  broad 
prairies  without  trees, 
but  with  extensive  cotton 
fields.  Next  a  section  is 
reached  which  is  too  dry 
for  cotton,  and  this  coun- 
try, fitted  only  for  ranch- 
ing, stretches  westward 
for  several  hundred  miles. 
Forests . — Extensive 
areas  in  the  Southern 
States  are  timber-cov- 
ered, and  among  the 
forests  are  found  many 
trees  unknown  in  the  North,  some  of  them,  such  as  the  magnolias, 
bearing  large,  sweet-scented  flowers.     There  are  forests  not  merely 


Mm 


Fig.  91. 

A  live-oak  grove  with  the  Southern  moss  hanging 
from  the  limbs. 


SOUTHERN    STATES 


101 


among  the  mountains,  but  also  on  the  coastal  plains,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  sandy  (Fig.  92).  The  method  of  lumbering  is  somewhat 
different  from  that  in  New  England  (p.  51).  Instead  of  floating  the 
logs  down  to  tide  water  by  means  of  the  spring  freshets,  sawmills 
are  located  in  the  midst  of  the  forests,  if  possible  on  the  river  banks. 
To  them  the  logs  are  brought,  either  by  water,  by  wagon,  or  by  train, 
and  are  sawed  into  lumber. 

The  long-leaved  or  hard  pine,  often  called  the  G-eorgia  pine^  which 
grows  on  the  sandy  coastal  plains,  is  much  used  for  flooring  in  the 
North.  It  is  shipped  North  from  the  coastal  cities  of  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  Savannah  and  Brunswick,  Georgia,  Jackson- 
ville and  Pensacola,  Plorida,  and  Mobile,  Alabama. 

While  the  pine  thrives  on  the  low,  sandy  plains,  the  hardy  oak 
and  other  trees  are  found  upon  the  plateaus  and  among  the  moun- 
tains. Quantities  of  hardwood  are  shipped  from  Memphis,  Tennes- 
see; but  although 
much  of  the  pine, 
oak,  and  other  lum- 
ber is  sent  North, 
a  great  deal  of 
it  is  manufactured 
into  doors,  blinds, 
furniture,  etc.,  in 
the  South,  as  at 
High  Point,  North 
Carolina,  Macon 
and  Montgomery 
on  the  fall  line,  and 
at  Atlanta.  There  is  also  lumber  manufacturing  at  the  coast 
cities  already  mentioned,  as  well  as  in  many  other  Southern  cities. 

These  forests  are  of  value  in  two  other  ways.  From  them  are  obtained 
turpentine  and  tannic  acid,  the  liquid  in  which  hides  are  soaked  to  make 
leather  (p.  61).  In  the  Northern  States  hemlock  bark  furnishes  a  tannic 
acid  which  gives  the  leather  a  red  color,  so  that  shoes  made  from  it  need 
to  be  blackened  ;  but  tannic  acid  from  the  chestnut  oak  of  the  South  gives 
a  lighter  or  tan  color,  and  it  is  from  such  leather  that  tan  shoes  are  made. 


Fig.  92. 
A  scene  in  the  pine  forest  of  the  Southern  coastal  plains. 


Agriculture 

Although  farming  is  carried  on  in  all  the  states  we  have  thus  far 
studied,  other  occupations  are  followed  by  great  numbers  of  people. 


102 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Give  examples.  In  the  South,  however,  with  its  excellent  soil  and 
warm  climate,  agriculture  is  the  principal  industry.  Indeed,  until 
recently,  there  was  almost  no  other  industry  except  commerce. 

While  the  climate  makes  it  possible  to  raise  crops  which  cannot  be 
grown  in  the  cooler  Northern  States,  some  products  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  North.  For  instance,  tobacco  raising,  already  described 
as  an  industry  of  great  importance  in  Virginia,  is  also  extensively 
carried  on  in  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  Clarksville,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Durham,  North  Carolina,  are  centers  for  this  industry. 
Name  some  Virginia  cities  likewise  engaged  in  it. 

Cotton.  —  The  crop  in  the  South  that  surpasses  every  other  in 
value  is  cotton.     The  early  colonists  soon    discovered   that  cotton 


Fig.  93. 
Rural  scene  in  the  cotton  belt. 


could  easily  be  raised,  and  that  a  ready  market  awaited  the  crop 
abroad.  Their  fields  were  far  too  large  to  be  cultivated  without 
many  laborers,  and  negro  slaves,  offered  for  sale  at  that  time  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  were  found  especially  suited  to  work  in  the 
cotton  fields.  In  this  way  it  came  about  that  cotton  had  much  to  do 
with  the  spread  of  slavery  in  the  Southern  States. 

It  is  owing  to  the  system  of  slavery  that  there  are  now  eight 
million  negroes  in  this  country.  Among  the  mountains  of  North 
Carolina  and  other  states,  where  cotton,  rice,  and  sugar  cane  cannot 
thrive,  and  where  the  farms  must  be  small,  there  are  whole  counties 
where  there  are  almost  no  negroes  ;  but  in  portions  of  some  of  the 
Southern  States  they  far  outnumber  the  whites.  Most  of  the  negroes 
still  make  their  living  by  working  in  the  cotton  fields,  for  cotton  is 
the  principal  crop  all  the  way  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas. 


SOUTHERN  STATES 


108 


In  1907  the  Southern  States  produced  about  13,660,000  bales  of  cotton, 
each  weighing  nearly  500  pounds.  Of  this,  about  9,000,000  bales  were 
shipped  abroad,  especially  to  England.  The  remainder  was  manufactured 
at  home,  particularly  in  New  England  and  the  South.  In  the  same  year 
the  entire  world  produced  a  little  over  19,000,000  bales,  which  makes  it 
clear  that  the  United  States  furnishes  much  more  than  half  of  all  the 
cotton  grown.  When  we  remember  that  much  of  our  clothing  is  made  of 
cotton,  it  is  evident  that  the  Southern  States  make  it  their  chief  work  to 
help  clothe  the  various  peoples  of  the  world. 

Cotton  requires  rather  fertile  soil  and  a  long,  warm  summer  with  an 
abundance  of  rain.  These  conditions  exist  throughout  the  regions  marked 
as  the  cotton  belt  in  Eigure  213;  but,  on  account  of  the  short  summer 
season,  they  are  wanting  in  the  North. 

Cotton  seeds  are  planted  in  the  spring,  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart, 
and  the  weeds  are  kept  out  until  the  plants  are  nearly  grown.  They 
reach  a  height  of  about  three  feet,  and  develop  large  blossoms  that  pro- 


FiG.  94. 
Picking  cotton. 


duce  a  pod,  in  which  the  cotton  and  cotton  seed  are  contained.  On  matur- 
ing, the  pod  bursts  open,  revealing  a  white  woolly  ball,  known  as  cotton, 
which  in  appearance  resembles  the  downy  substance  in  the  thistle  and 
in  the  pod  of  the  milkweed. 

When  a  great  number  of  these  pods  have  split  open,  a  cotton  planta- 
tion of  five  or  six  hundred  acres  presents  a  beautiful  sight,  —  much  like 
a  field  flecked  with  snow  (Fig.  94).  Then  the  busy  season  for  the  pickers 
begins.     As  many  as  two  or  three  hundred  men,  women,  and  children 


104 


NORTH   AMERICA 


may  assemble  in  one  field,  carrying  bags  and  picking  cotton,  singing  and 
chattering  the  livelong  day. 

When  plucked  from  the  pods,  the  cotton  is  attached  to  seeds,  and  these 
must  be  removed  before  the  cotton  can  be  of  use.     The  seedless  cotton  is 


Fig.  95. 
Bales  of  cotton  at  a  railway  station  in  the  South. 


tightly  pressed  into  bales  of  about  five  hundred  pounds,  which  are  then 
covered  with  coarse  jute  bagging,  bound  with  iron  bands,  and  shipped 
away  to  the  warehouses,  to  be  sold. 

Rice.  —  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  food  products  of  the 
world,  being  the  main  support  of  millions  of  people,  as  the  Chinese, 
for  example.  Although  it  is  not  a  staple  food  in  the  United  States, 
we  do  not  raise  even  enough  for  our  own  use.  Rice  requires  a  warm 
climate  and  a  damp  soil,  such  as  prevail  on  the  low  coastal  and  flood 
plains  from  the  Carolinas  to  Texas.  Although  raised  throughout  that 
section,  the  largest  quantity  comes  from  Louisiana. 

In  the  cultivation  of  rice,  after  preparing  the  ground,  as  for  other 
grains,  and  planting  the  seeds,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  flood  the  fields 
from  ditches.  As  the  plant  grows,  it  forms  a  slender  stalk,  upon  the  top 
of  which  appears  a  head  of  seed  somewhat  resembling  a  head  of  oats, 
the  whole  reaching  a  height  of  from  three  and  a  half  to  six  feet.  Just 
before  the  harvest  season  the  water  is  drawn  off,  so  that  horses  may  enter 
the  field,  and  the  grain  is  then  cut  and  the  kernels  threshed  out,  as  in  the 
case  of  wheat.  After  the  hull  is  removed,  the  grains  are  polished  at  such 
cities  as  New  Orleans,  Savannah,  and  Charleston,  and  are  then  ready 
for  market. 

Sugar  Cane  and  Sugar.  —  There  is  a  number  of  plants  from 
whose  sap  sugar  is  made.  One  of  these,  the  sugar  maple,  has  already 
been  mentioned  (p.  53)  ;  another  is  the  sugar  beet,  raised  in  great 
quantities  in  some  of  the  European  countries,  and  also,  of  late,  in 


BOUTBl^RS    STATES 


105 


many  parts  of  the  United  States.  This  beet  is  a  very  important 
source  of  sugar,  because  it  can  be  raised  in  the  cool,  temperate 
climate.  For  a  long  time,  however,  the  principal  source  of  sugar  has 
been  the  sugar  cane,  a  plant  that  looks  somewhat  like  corn. 

This  plant  requires  a  fertile  soil  and  grows  only  in  warm  regions, 
where  there  is  practically  no  frost  even  in  winter.  For  this  reason 
the  most  cane  sugar  comes  from  tropical  lands,  such  as  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and  Cuba  (Figs.  215  and  507). 
In  our  own  country  the  most  noted  sugar  district  is  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  in  Louisiana. 

In  that  section  there  are  large  sugar  plantations,  some  of  them  having 
several  thousand  acres  planted  to  sugar  cane.  The  cane  is  planted  in  rows 
about  six  feet  apart,  and  grows  to  be  two  or  more  inches  in  diameter  and 
from  four  to  ten  feet  in  height  (Fig.  97).  A  crop  is  raised  every  twelve 
months,  being  cut  in  the  fall  and  taken  to  the  sugar  house,  where  the  cane 
is  ground  between  rollers  to  squeeze  out  the  juice. 

The  juice,  or  sap,  after  being  treated  with  lime,  is  placed  in  large  vats 
and  heated  to  evaporate  the  water.  As  a  result,  two  products  are  formed,  — 
a  thick  black  molasses  and  brown  sugar. 

The  crude  sugar  is  sent  to  the  refinery,  either  in  New  Orleans 
(Fig.  100)  or  in  the  North,  where  it  is  changed  to  white  sugar  by 


Fig.  96. 

Partial  view  of  grounds  and  buildings  of  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Tus- 

kegee,  Alabama. 


106  NORTH    AMERICA 

a  complicated  process,  as  a  result  of  which  the  various  grades  of 
granulated,  powdered,  and  lump  sugar  are  produced.  In  changing 
the  brown  to  the  white  sugar,  burned  bones,  called  boneblack,  are 
made  use  of  to  filter  out  the  impurities.     The  bones  are  obtained 


Fig.  97. 
Cutting  the  sugar  cane  in  Louisiana. 

from  Chicago  and  elsewhere,  where  large  numbers  of  animals  are 
killed  for  meat. 

The  molasses  is  used  for  various  purposes,  some  of  it,  especially 
in  the  West  Indies,  being  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  rum. 
Molasses  is  a  by-product,  like  sawdust  in  a  lumber  mill,  and  is  not 
considered  of  much  value  by  the  sugar  raiser. 

Fruits.  —  Fruits,  such  as  watermelons,  apples,  peaches,  pears,  and 
grapes,  flourish  in  the  warm  climate  of  the  Southern  States.  Florida, 
however,  is  so  far  south  that  it  has  fruits  of  an  entirely  different 
kind.  There  are  orange  and  lemon  groves  in  many  parts  of  the 
state ;  but  in  the  northern  part  the  trees  have  been  greatly 
injured  by  frosts.  During  cold  waves  (p.  12),  cool  air  from  the 
North  sweeps  over  the  Southern  States  even  as  far  as  Florida, 
sometimes  causing  great  destruction.  Farther  south,  where  frosts 
never  appear,  are  found  the  more  tender  tropical  plants,  sucli  as 
cocoanuts  and  pineapples  (Fig.  90).  The  latter  grow  especially 
well  on  the  low  coral  keys,  the  plant  resembling  an  arid-land 
plant,  with  the  pineapple  nestled  in  the  midst  of  sharp-pointed 
leaves. 

Florida  and  other  Southern  fruits  are  sent  in  great  quantities  to 
the  Northern  States,  where  they  appear  in  the  markets  early  in  the 
spring.     Thousands  of  bushels  at  a  time  are  shipped  by  fast  train 


SOUTHERN    STATES  107 

and  steamer.     They  are  sent  together  with  early  vegetables,  and  are 
intended  for  hundreds  of  cities  and  towns  in  the  North. 

Other  Crops. — Many  other  crops  besides  those  thus  far  named  are  raised 
in  the  South,  corn  and  wheat  being  among  the  most  important.  An  im- 
mense quantity  of  corn  is  produced,  and  over  almost  as  wide  an  area  as 
cotton  itself;  but  since  corn  and  wheat  are  raised  so  much  more  exten- 
sively in  states  farther  north,  they  are  treated  later  (pp.  124  to  126). 

Peanuts  and  sweet  potatoes  are  two  important  products  of  these 
states,  particularly  of  North  Carolina.  Stock  of  various  kinds,  as  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  is  also  raised,  each  plantation  usually  having  some 
of  these  animals.  In  the  open  pine  forests  of  the  Florida  and  Georgia 
coastal  plains,  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised. 

An  important  animal  in  the  South,  and  one  which  makes  a  strong 
draught  animal  well  suited  to  a  warm  climate,  is  the  mule.  On  the  fertile 
plains,  especially  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  much  attention  is  paid  to 
raising  mules  and  fine  breeds  of  horses. 

Grazing.  —  In  western  Texas,  where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  for 
agriculture,  grazing  is  the  chief  industry.  The  climate  is  so  dry 
that  the  grass  cures  and  becomes  hay  while  still  upon  the  ground, 


Fk;.  its. 
Cattle  on  the  Great  Plains  of  Texas. 


thus  offering  such  excellent  food  for  cattle  and  sheep  that  ranching 
is  a  thriving  business.  One  may  travel  for  two  or  three  hundred 
miles  westward  over  the  plains,  seeing  little  else  than  a  ranch  house 
here  and  there,  with  an  occasional  herd  of  cattle  or  sheep. 

While  there  is  no  reason  for  large  cities  in  this  section,  and  the 
life  of  the  cowboys  and  sheep  herders  is  a  lonely  one,  it  is  their 
work  that  helps  to  supply  our  tables  with  meat,  and  provides  us 
with  woolen  clothing  and  with  shoes. 


108  NORTH    AMEBIC  A 

Mineral  Products 

Coal  and  Iron.  —  Coal  and  iron  ore  constitute  the  principal  min- 
eral wealth  of  the  South.  These  two  minerals  occur  among  the 
mountain  ranges  all  the  way  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Southern 
States.  They  are  mined  in  several  places,  as  near  Chattanooga  in 
eastern  Tennessee ;  but  the  most  noted  of  all  is  a  district  at  the 
extreme  end  of  the  Appalachian  system  around  Birmingham,  Ala- 
bama. This  region  is  so  rich  in  these  products  that  it  now  ranks  as 
the  second  iron-producing  section  of  the  continent. 

We  learned  that  Pennsylvania  enjoyed  a  great  advantage  in  hav- 
ing iron  ore  and  coal  near  together  ;  but  in  Birmingham  even  more 
favorable  conditions  are  found.  That  city  has  grown  up  in  the 
midst  of  a  valley,  around  the  margin  of  which  are  found  iron  ore, 
coal,  and  limestone,  the  three  materials  necessary  for  the  production 
of  iron  and  steel.  In  consequence,  this  section  has  become  a  great 
manufacturing  center. 

Stone.  —  A  large  amount  of  building  stone,  especially  granite  and 
marble,  is  found  in  northern  Georgia ;  and  near  Knoxville,  in  eastern 
Tennessee,  much  marble  of  different  colors  is  quarried.  What  city  in 
Vermont  is  likewise  noted  for  marble  ?    (p.  54.) 

Gold  and  Precious  Stones.— In  the  mountainous  portion  of  western 
Georgia  and  North  Carolina  there  is  a  gold-producing  belt  which  formerly 
yielded  much  gold,  and  from  which  some  is  still  obtained.  Occasionally, 
too,  precious  stones,  as  sapphires  and  diamonds,  are  found. 

Phosphates.  —  The  soil  of  farms  often  becomes  worn  out  and  needs 
a  fertilizer.  There  are  various  kinds  of  fertilizers,  as  manure  and  bone 
dust,  which  furnish  the  plant  food  needed  by  crops ;  but  one  of  the  most 
important  fertilizers  is  mineral  phosphate.  This  is  found  in  great  quan- 
tities in  Florida,  Tennessee,  and  South  Carolina.  It  is  a  deposit  in  which 
are  found  fossil  remains  of  many  animals,  such  as  the  teeth  of  sharks,  and 
the  bones  and  teeth  of  many  large  land  animals.  Among  the  latter  is  the 
huge  mastodon,  which  lived  in  this  country  long  before  white  men  came. 
This  fertilizer  is  so  valuable  that  it  is  shipped  to  the  Northern  States  from 
Charleston,  Jacksonville,  and  Tampa,  to  be  used  on  the  farms  in  that 
section  of  the  country. 

Salt  and  Oil.  —  Salt  is  obtained  in  Louisiana  and  in  Texas ;  and  recent 
discoveries  of  vast  quantities  of  oil  in  Texas  (Fig.  89)  have  made  that  state 
one  of  the  most  noted  oil-producing  regions  in  the  world. 

Manufacturing 
Birmingham,  the  leading  iron   manufacturing  center   of  the 
South,  is  located  on  an  old  cotton  plantation.     In  1880  it  had  a 
population  of  3086 ;  but  now  it  contains  about  forty-five  thousand  per- 


SOUTHERN    STATES 


109 


sons.  What  special  advantage  has  it  ?  In  this  city,  as  in  Pittsburg 
and  Allegheny,  the  iron  ore  is  reduced  to  iron  in  blast  furnaces 
(p.  81),  and  then  changed  to  steel  and  various  other  useful  articles. 
Several  other  cities  near  the  mountains  are  also  noted  for  their  iron 
manufacturing,  as  Rome  and  Atlanta,  Georgia,  and  Knoxville 
and  Chattanooga,  Tennessee. 

Before  the  war  there  was  very  little  manufacturing  in  the  South.  The 
negroes,  who  did  most  of  the  manual  labor  there,  lacked  the  training 
necessary  to  handle  machinery.  At  that  time  nearly  all  of  the  slaves  were 
unable  to  read  or  write;  but  now  only  about  half  of  the  colored  people 
are  illiterate.  The  raw  materials  were  shipped  away,  and  manufactured 
articles  brought  back.  Thus  the  cotton  went  to  England,  New  England, 
and  elsewhere,  some  of  it  to  be  returned  in  the  form  of  clothes;  and  the 
lumber  was  shipped  to  various  Northern  cities,  to  be  sent  back  in  the 
form  of  furniture.     The  iron  ore  was  little  mined. 

This  situation  is  now  fast  changing.  Since  the  Civil  War  the 
Southerners  have  become  actively  engaged  in  manufacturing,  and 
many  Northerners,  recognizing  the  superior  natural  advantages, 
have  moved  into  the  South.  The  South  has  awakened  to  its  great 
opportunities,  and  the  hum  of  factories  is  now  heard  in  many  places. 
The  iron  industry  is  already  well  developed,  and  each  year  new 
cotton  mills  are  being  erected. 

Some  idea  of  what  one  of  these  cotton  mills  means  may  be  gained 
from  a  certain  one  in  Alabama.  It  employs  600  hands,  including  men, 
women,  boys,  and  girls,  and 
pays  them  about  ^2000  per 
week  in  wages.  Each  day 
this  mill  consumes  15  bales 
of  cotton,  averaging  about 
500  pounds;  and  since  the 
average  yield  per  acre  of 
land  is  about  250  pounds, 
you  can  easily  estimate  about 
how  many  acres  of  cotton  are 
called  for  in  one  year  by  this 
one  mill.  White  people  are 
employed,  and  as  a  rule  they 
live  in  villages  that  have  sprung  up  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
the  mills.  Some  are  so  large  that  they  have  their  own  schoolhouses  and 
churches. 

Texas  raises  more  cotton  than  any  other  state,  but  most  of  it  is 
?till  shipped  away.     In  that  state,  in  1897,  there  were  only  four 


a  cotton  factory  at  Huntsville,  Alabama. 


110  NOBTH   AMERICA 

cotton  mills,  while  North  Carolina  had  about  200.     Nor  is  there 
much  cotton  manufacturing  in  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana. 

formerly  the  cotton  seeds  were  slowly  picked  out  of  the  cotton  by 
hand,  and  then  thrown  away.  Whitney's  invention  of  the  Cotton  Gin,'  in 
1793,  enabled  one  laborer  to  separate  from  the  seed  as  much  as  1000 
pounds  in  the  time  that  was  formerly  required  to  clean  five  or  six  by  hand. 
That,  of  course,  made  cotton  raising  far  more  profitable,  and  had  an  im- 
mense influence  upon  the  amount  produced,  as  well  as  upon  the  number  of 
slaves  needed. 

Instead  of  being  thrown  away,  the  cotton  seeds  are  now  saved.  There 
are  two  or  three  pounds  of  seeds  to  one  pound  of  fiber ;  and  since,  on  the 
average,  one  acre  produces  about  250  pounds  of  seedless  cotton,  the  quantity 
of  seed  from  a  600-acre  plantation  is  very  large.  It  was  an  immense  loss 
when  the  seeds  were  thrown  away ;  but  now  a  kind  of  oil,  called  cotton- 
seed oil,  is  extracted  from  them,  and  is  used  in  making  soap,  imitation 
butter,  and  a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  Further  than  that,  the  part  of  the 
seed  that  is  left  after  the  oil  is  pressed  out  has  been  found  to  be  an  excel- 
lent food  for  cattle  and  a  good  fertilizer. 

While  hundreds  of  Southern  cities  and  towns  now  manufacture 
cotton  cloth  and  cotton-seed  oil,  the  most  noted  are  Columbia  and 
Greenville,  South  Carolina,  Charlotte,  North  Carolina,  and 
Augusta,  Columbus,  and  Atlanta,  Georgia.  What  cities  in  New 
England  are  likewise  noted  for  cotton  manufacture  ?  How  do  they 
compare  in  size  with  these  ?     (See  tables  in  Appendix,  pp.  iv-vi.) 

Some  of  the  other  articles  manufactured  in  the  South  have  al- 
ready been  mentioned,  as  furniture  and  other  objects  from  wood 
(p.  101),  tobacco  (p.  102),  and  sugar  (p.  104).  In  each  case  this  work 
in  confined  mainly  to  the  section  in  which  the  raw  material  is  raised. 
For  example  ;  New  Orleans,  in  the  midst  of  sugar  plantations,  has 
large  sugar  refineries  ;  Macon,  Montgomery,  Mobile,  Chatta- 
nooga, Memphis,  and  Little  Rock,  all  in  the  neighborhood  of 
forests,  produce  lumber  and  furniture  ;  and  Raleigh,  Durham, 
Winston,  and  other  cities  in  northern  North  Carolina  manufacture 
tobacco.  Which  of  the  manufacturing  cities  mentioned  are  on  the 
fallline?     (Fig.  59.) 

Key  West,  on  a  small  coral  key  south  of  the  Florida  peninsula,  is 
also  noted  for  its  tobacco  factories.  It  is  so  near  Cuba  that  the  Havana 
tobacco,  so  much  prized  by  cigar  smokers,  is  easily  obtained.  There  is  also 
cigar  manufacturing  at  Tampa.     Why  there  ? 

1  Gin  is  merely  an  abbreviation  for  engine. 


SOUTHERN    STATES 


111 


Leading  Cities  and  Shipping  Routes 

The  largest  cities  so  far  studied  have  been  located  at  points  on 
the  water  where  the  shipping  advantages  are  superior,  and  where 
numerous  factories  have  consequently  been  located.  Give  examples. 
For  reasons  already  mentioned,  the  Southern  States  have  not  so 
many  fine  harbors  as  the  Northern  States  (p.  17).  Besides  that, 
although  many  factories  have  recently  been  built,  the  people  are  still 
mainly  engaged  in  farming.  On  these  accounts  we  cannot  expect  to 
find  so  many  or  so  large  cities  as  in  the  North ;  and  most  of  those 
that  do  exist  may  be  looked  for  either  on  the  Mississippi  River  or  on 
the  coast. 

New  Orleans  —  The  greatest  of  all  Southern  cities  is  New 
Orleans,  the  largest  city  in  eastern  United  States  south  of  St. 
Louis.      It  has  a  population  of  nearly  300,000,  or  more  than  half 


FiQ.  100. 

Loading  a  river  steamer  at  the  levee  in  New  Orleans.    A  large  sugar  refinery  is  seen  in  the 

distance,  on  the  left. 


as  many  as  Boston,  and  is  the  twelfth  in  size  in  the  United  States. 
When  we  recall  the  advantages  of  New  York's  water  connection 
with  the  West,  we  can  readily  explain  the  growth  of  New  Orleans. 
Pittsburg  on  the  Ohio,  St.  Paul  on  the  Mississippi,  and  Kansas  City 
on  the  Missouri,  may  all  be  reached  from  New  Orleans  by  boat 
(Fig.  44).  How  do  these  distances  compare  with  those  from  New 
York  to  Chicago  and  to  Duluth  ?  Also  how  far  apart  are  Pittsburg 
and  Kansas  City  ? 


112 


NOBTH   AMERICA 


New  Orleans  is  situated  at  the  gateway  to  the  most  productive 
valley  in  North  America.  The  city  is  located  about  one  hundred 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  at  a  point  to  which  ocean 
vessels  can  ascend,  although  they  dare  not  venture  much  beyond  it. 
On  the  map  (Fig.  87)  you  will  see  that  an  arm  of  the  sea,  called 
Lake  Pontchartrain,  reaches  up  to  the  city,  and  that  Ne\V  Orleans  is 
located  at  the  place  where  the  river  and  lake  are  nearest  together. 
The  stream  there  makes  a  bend  in  the  form  of  a  half  circle,  which 
explains  the  reason  for  the  name  of  Crescent  City,  commonly 
applied  to  New  Orleans. 

Much  of  the  land  on  which  New  Orleans  rests  is  frequently  below  the 
level  of  the  river.  In  fact,  from  Memphis  southward,  a  large  part  of  the 
land  on  either  side  of  the  river  is  a  low  flood  plain,  spreading  out  for 


Fig,  101. 
Shearing  sheep.    Tell  what  you  see  in  the  picture. 


many  miles,  and  often  threatened  with  floods.  The  mighty  river^  receiving 
tributaries  from  regions  thousands  of  miles  apart,  is  charged  with  yellow 
mud,  which  gradually  sinks  to  the  bottom  as  the  current  becomes  slower 
toward  the  mouth.  This  has  built  up  the  bed  of  the  river,  so  that  at  high 
water  the  floods  would  spread  over  the  broad  flood  plains  if  these  were 
not  protected  by  strong  walls  of  earth,  called  levees.  In  spite  of  their 
strength,  these  embankments  occasionally  give  way,  especially  in  the 
springtime,  when  the  snows  are  melting  in  the  North;  then  the  destruc- 
tion to  life  and  property  is  appalling.  At  such  times  hundreds  of  men 
patrol  the  levees  night  and  day  to  check  the  slightest  leak.  Even  a  hole 
made  b^  a  crawfish  ma^  be  the  be^innin^  of  an  awful  inundation.     Wh^  ? 


SOUTHERN    STATES  US 

Some  peculiar  consequences  result  from  this  condition.  The  soil  on 
which  New  Orleans  stands  is  naturally  very  wet.  Indeed,  in  digging 
foundations  for  buildings,  water  is  reached  a  short  distance  below  the 
surface.  On  that  account  there  can  be  no  cellars  under  the  houses,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  provide  proper  drainage. 

Since  the  city  once  belonged  to  France  (p.  33),  French  is  still  a  common 
language  there,  one  person  in  six  being  of  French  stock.  About  one 
person  in  four  is  colored. 

Frost  seldom  reaches  this  city,  and  the  midwinter  weather  is  rarely 
colder  than  the  occasional  frosty  early  autumn  evenings  of  the  North. 
What  must  be  the  effect  of  this  climate  upon  the  style  of  houses  ?  Also 
upon  the  presence  of  birds,  flowers,  and  fruits  in  winter  ? 

Knowing  the  farm  products  in  this  region,  we  have  a  key  to  the 
exports  from  this  point.  New  Orleans  is  an  important  cotton  market 
and  a  center  for  sugar,  molasses,  and  rice,  besides  being  a  shipping 
point  for  products  from  farther  up  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Like  New  York,  this  city  is  now  connected  with  the  distant 
interior  by  rail  as  well  as  by  water.  The  Illinois  Central  Railway 
extends  all  the  way  to  Chicago,  running  parallel  to  the  river  for 
much  of  the  distance  ;  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  reaches  Louisville 
and  St.  Louis ;  and  the  Southern  Railway  runs  most  of  the  distance 
from  New  Orleans  to  Washington,  connecting  with  the  Southern 
Pacific,  which  extends  westward,  across  Texas,  to  California. 

Memphis  and  Atlanta.  —  The  cities  next  in  size  are  Memphis 
and  Atlanta  (Fig.  87),  each  having  more  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  The  former  is  situated  in  Tennessee,  on  a  bluff 
where  the  Mississippi  River  swings  out  upon  its  broad  flood  plain. 
Why  is  that  a  favorable  location  ?  Memphis  is  one  of  the  great 
cotton  centers  and  lumber  markets  of  the  South. 

Atlanta,  the  "  Gate  City,"  is  one  of  the  few  large  cities  not 
located  upon  a  water  route.  Northeast  of  it,  for  over  350  miles, 
there  is  no  easy  pass  across  the  mountains  ;  and  until  1880  no  rail- 
way crossed  the  mountain  ranges  in  all  that  distance.  Near  where 
Atlanta  stands,  however,  there  is  a  good  route ;  and  railways  reach- 
ing westward  from  the  Carolinas  or  northern  Georgia  come  together 
there,  making  Atlanta  a  great  railway  center.  Owing  to  its  advan- 
tageous situation,  Atlanta  is  the  leading  interior  wholesale  market  of 
the  South,  and  surpasses  all  Southern  cities  in  the  number  and  variety 
of  its  manufactures. 

Nashville,  the  capital  of  Tennessee,  has  sawmills,  furniture 
factories,  and  flour  mills.     Being  in  the  midst  of  a  splendid  farming 


114  NORTH    AMERICA 

country,  it  is  a  distributing  point  for  supplies  to  the  neighboring 
towns  and  farms.  It  is  also  one  of  the  educational  centers  of  the 
South,  having  Vanderbilt  University  and  other  important  schools. 
There  are  several  other  educational  institutions  in  the  South,  among 
which  is  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industkial  Institute  of 
Tuskegee,  Alabama  (Fig.  96),  a  school  for  the  training  of  the 
negro.  The  object  of  the  school  is  to  furnish  its  students  with  an 
education,  fitting  them  to  become  proper  leaders  of  the  people  of 
their  own  race,  and  thus  to  bring  about  better  moral  and  material 
conditions. 

Instruction  and  practical  work  are  given  in  all  the  trades,  such 
as  carpentry,  blacksmithing,  sewing,  domestic  service,  nursing,  etc. 
The  Institute  owns  2600  acres  of  land,  has  145  instructors,  and 
over  1500  students  enrolled.  This  school  is  doing  wonders  for  the 
negro  people  of  the  South.  It  has  attained  a  remarkable  degree  of 
success  under  the  able  direction  of  the  noted  negro  educator,  Booker 
T.  Washington,  its  principal. 

Texas  Cities.  —  Texas  is  the  largest  state  in  the  Union.  Find  how 
it  compares  with  New  England  in  size  (Fig.  44).  The  western  third 
of  the  state,  as  was  stated  on  page  100,  is  fitted  mainly  for  grazing 
although  there  is  some  mining  in  the  mountains.  Throughout  that 
entire  section  there  are  no  cities  and  almost  no  large  towns,  except 
in  the  extreme  western  corner,  where  El  Paso  is  situated.  The 
word  El  Paso  means  "  the  pass  "  in  Spanish,  for  this  city  is  situated 
at  a  pass  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  through  which  the  Southern  Paci- 
fic Railway  passes  westward,  while  an  important  line  extends  south- 
ward into  Mexico. 

East  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  plateau  is  the  fertile  cotton  belt. 
In  this  there  are  many  cities,  such  as  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth  — 
both  shipping  points,  not  only  for  cotton  but  also  for  cattle  from  the 
Western  plains.  Dallas  is  also  a  busy  manufacturing  city.  Austin, 
the  capital,  is  a  beautiful  city  on  the  Colorado  River,  and  San  An- 
tonio is  a  quaint  Mexican  town  ;  for  Texas  once  belonged  to  the 
Mexicans,  but  declared  its  independence  in  1836,  after  which  (1845) 
it  was  taken  into  the  Union. 

Two  of  the  largest  cities  of  Texas  are  Houston,  near  the  coast, 
and  Galveston,  the  principal  seaport  west  of  New  Orleans. 
Immense  quantities  of  cotton  and  other  products  are  shipped  from 
Galveston.      It  is  also  a  port  of  outlet  for  goods  from  the  Far  West. 

Oklahoma.  —  Many  Indian  tribes  have  been  given  land  in  what 


SOUTHERN    STATES  116 

was  formerly  called  the  Indian  Territory  ;  but,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  Indians  owned  the  land,  little  could  be  done  to  develop  it 
until  it  was  opened  up  to  white  settlement  in  part,  as  a  territory  at 
first,  and  afterward  as  the  state  of  Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma,  like  Texas,  is  mainly  a  great  plain,  arid  in  the  west- 
ern part,  but  in  the  eastern  part  a  fertile  agricultural  district.     The 


•  Fig.  102. 

Scene  on  an  Indian  reservation. 

principal  products  are  corn  in  the  north  and  cotton  in  the  south. 
The  western  part  was  opened  to  settlers  in  1890.  Since  then  its 
growth  has  been  so  marvelous  that  almost  all  the  farm  land  is  now 
occupied  and  tilled.  There  are  two  flourishing  cities,  —  Oklahoma 
and  Guthrie. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Review  Questions  and  Topics.  —  (1)  Describe  the  physiography  of  these 
states:  —  the  plains  and  their  products;  the  mountains;  the  Texas  plains;  the 
coast  —  its  bars,  harbors,  and  coral  keys.  (2)  Tell  about  the  climate :  —  how  it 
differs  from  the  North ;  the  climate  of  the  mountains ;  the  crops ;  the  winter 
resorts ;  the  summer  resorts  ;  the  arid  section.  (3)  How  do  the  forests  and  meth- 
ods of  lumbering  differ  from  those  of  Maine?  (4)  Which  cities  have  important 
lumber  industries  ?  (5)  AVhat  besides  lumber  is  obtained  in  the  forests  ?  (6)  What 
about  tobacco  raising  in  the  South?  (7)  Tell  about  cotton  :  —  the  effect  in  encour- 
aging slavery;  amount  produced;  where  grown  ;  method  of  planting  and  picking. 
(8)  Do  the  same  for  rice ;  and  tell,  also,  what  it  is  used  for.  (9)  Describe  the  sugar 
industry :  —  source  of  sugar ;  where  the  sugar  cane  grows,  and  why ;  method  of 
planting  and  harvesting;  change  to  sugar,  —  where  done,  methods  employed,  and 
pi'oducts  obtained.  (10)  What  fruits  are  raised  in  the  South?  Why  there? 
(11)    What  other  crops  are  important?     (12)   Where   is   grazing   carried   on? 


116  NORTH   AMERICA 

Why  there?  How  are  we  dependent  upon  these  ranchmen?  (13)  "Where  are 
coal  and  iron  found?  (14)  What  great  natural  advantages  has  Birmingham? 
(15)  What  other  mineral  products  are  obtained?  (16)  Tell  about  the  phosphate. 
(17)  Where  is  iron  manufacturing  carried  on  ?  (18)  Tell  about  manufacturing 
in  the  South:  —  former  condition;  present  change;  importance  of  a  single  cotton 
factory ;  the  cotton  gin ;  uses  of  cotton  seed ;  cities  engaged  in  cotton  manufactur- 
ing; cities  engaged  in  other  manufacturing.  (19)  Why  are  there  not  so  many 
large  cities  in  the  South  as  in  the  North?  (20)  Tell  about  New  Orleans:  —  the 
reason  for  its  importance;  why  located  just  where  it  is;  the  need  of  levees;  the 
inhabitants ;  the  climate ;  the  industries.  (21)  For  what  are  Memphis  and  Atlanta 
important?  (22)  Chattanooga  and  Nashville?  (23)  What  about  the  river  ports? 
(24)  The  seaports  ?  (25)  Name  the  principal  cities  of  Texas  and  tell  for  what 
each  is  noted.     (26)   Tell  something  of  the  life  of  Booker  T.  Washington. 

Review  by  States:  North  Carolina  (N.C.).  —  (1)  Which  part  is  mountain- 
ous? Name  and  locate  the  highest  peak  in  the  East.  (2)  What  two  plains  in 
this  state?  (3)  Which  cities  are  mentioned  in  the  text  ?  Where  is  each?  For 
what  important?  (4)  What  capes  on  the  coast?  (5)  What  are  the  industries? 
(See  Figs.  209-231.)  (6)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  this  state  like  that  of  Maine, 
and  later  do  the  same  for  each  of  the  other  states. 

Tennessee  (Tenn.). —  (7)  Where  are  the  mountains?  The  plains?  (8)  Name 
two  cities  among  the  mountains.  For  what  is  each  important  ?  (9)  Answer  the 
same  question  for  two  other  cities  in  Tennessee.  (10)  Which  city  is  the  largest? 
(See  table,  Appendix,  p.  vi.)  (11)  What  large  river  drains  the  state?  Through 
what  two  large  tributaries ?     (12)    What  industries  in  this  state? 

South  Carolina  (5.C.). —  (13)  Describe  the  physiography  of  this  state. 
(14)  What  are  the  principal  industries?  (15)  What  city  is  on  the  "fall  line  ?  On 
the  seacoast?    For  what  is  each  important?     (16)    Which  city  is  largest? 

Georgia  (Ga.).  —  (17)  Where  are  the  mountains?  (18)  The  plains? 
(19)  What  are  the  industries  in  each  section  ?  (20)  Trace  the  fall  line  across 
the  state  (Fig.  59).  What  cities  are  on  it?  (21)  Why  is  Atlanta  situated 
where  it  is?  (22)  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  largest  city  in  the 
three  states  just  mentioned?  (23)  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  New 
Orleans,  Boston,  Buffalo,  and  Providence?  (24)  Name  the  two  seaports.  What 
do  they  ship? 

Florida  (Fla.).  —  (25)  Why  are  there  so  many  lakes  in  Florida?  (See  p.  17.) 
(26)  What  about  the  relief?  (27)  What  about  the  climate  ?  How  does  this  influ- 
ence the  crops?  (28)  What  Florida  cities  were  mentioned,  and  for  what  is  each 
important?  (29)  What  mineral  product  comes  from  Florida?  (30)  What  is  the 
principal  industry  at  Key  West?    Why  ? 

Alabama  (Ala.).  —  (31)  Trace  the  fall  line  across  this  state.  What  cities  are 
situated  on  it  ?  (32)  Where  is  Mobile  ?  For  what  is  it  important  ?  (33)  Describe 
the  location  and  industries  of  Birmingham.  (34)  What  crops  are  raised  in  Ala- 
bama? (35)  What  cities  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  cotton?  (36)  In  lumber 
manufacturing  ?     (37)    Compare  Mobile  in  size  with  Atlanta  and  Birmingham. 

Mississippi  (Miss.).  —  (38)  Why  is  there  no  seaport  ?  (39)  In  what  way  can 
the  products  of  the  state  be  shipped  by  water  ?  (40)  From  what  cities  ?  (41)  What 
are  the  products?  (42)  Why  no  mining?  (43)  What  reasons  can  you  give  why 
there  is  so  little  manufacturing? 

Louisiana  (La.).  —  (44)  State  the  reasons  for  the  great  importance  of  New 
Orleans.  (45)  Why  has  it  a  better  location  than  Mobile  or  Charleston  ?  (46)  Com- 
pare it  in  size  with  those  cities.     (47)   With  New  York,  Boston,  and  Baltimores 


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Map  Questions.  —  (1)  Name  the  large  rivers  of  this  group.  Draw  a  sketch  map  show- 
iag  them.  (2)  Draw  a  sketch  map  of  the  five  Great  Lakes.  (3)  Locate  upon  each  of  those 
sketches  the  cities  printed  in  large  type  (those  over  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants)  (see 
Appendix,  p.  iv).  (4)  Are  any  of  the  very  large  cities  not  situated  on  rivers  or  lakes  ?  AVhy  ? 
(6)  What  advantages  have  these  cities  from  their  location  ?    (6)  Examine  Figure  9  to  see 


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how  far  the  glacier  advanced  in  these  states.  Do  you  find  any  lakes  south  of  that  line? 
(7)  What  influence  must  the  Great  Lakes  have  upon  the  summer  climate  of  places  near 
them  ?  Upon  the  winter  climate  ?  (8)  "Why  is  the  interior  colder  in  winter  and  warmer  in 
summer  than  the  coast  ?  (9)  State  some  ways  in  which  the  Great  Lakes  must  have  influ- 
enced the  development  of  the  West. 


SOUTHERN    STATES  117 

(48)  What  large  tributary  enters  the  Mississippi  in  Louisiana?  (49)  What  crops 
are  raised  in  Louisiana  ?    Why  there  ?     (50)    Tell  how  the  delta  is  caused  to  grow. 

Arkansas  (Ark.).  —  (51)  What  large  river  enters  the  Mississippi  in  this  state  ? 
(52)  There  is  much  forest  in  Arkansas.  In  what  part  should  you  expect  to 
find  most  of  it?  (53)  Is  Arkansas  in  the  cotton  belt?  (See  Fig.  213.)  (54)  The 
capital  is  the  largest  city.  'Compare  it  in  size  with  Memphis.  Why  is  it  less 
favorably  situated  than  that  city?     (55)    Compare  it  with  New  Orleans. 

Texas  (Tex.). —  (56)  Where  are  the  mountains?  (57)  Are  there  forests  on 
the  western  plains ?  Why?  (58)  What  are  the  industries  there?  (59)  What 
city  in  the  western  part ?  Why  there?  (60)  What  are  the  industries  in  eastern 
Texas?  (61)  What  cities  are  mentioned  in  the  text  as  being  in  eastern  Texas? 
(62)  For  what  is  Galveston  noted?  (63)  Compare  it  in  size  with  New  Orleans, 
Charleston,  and  Boston.  (64)  Texas  is  how  many  times  larger  than  Rhode  Island  ? 
((For  area,  see  table  in  Appendix,  p.  iii.)  Than  Pennsylvania?  (65)  Add  together 
\he  areas  of  all  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  compare  the 
total  with  the  area  of  Texas.  (66)  Compare  the  population  of  Texas  with  that  of 
Massachusetts.  (See  Appendix,  p.  iii.)  Compare  it  with  that  of  New  York  City. 
(See  Appendix,  p.  vi.) 

Oklahoma  (Okla.).  —  (67)  What  about  the  climate  of  the  western  part?  (68) 
What  crops  are  raised  in  the  northern  part?  In  the  southern  part?  (69)  Into 
what  river  does  the  territory  drain?     (70)   Name  and  locate  two  cities. 

General. —  (71)  Which  is  the  smallest  state?  (72)  Compare  it  with  Penn- 
sylvania and  Massachusetts.     (73)    State  the  principal  industries  of  the  South.' 

(74)  Of  what  advantage  is  it  that  they  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  North  ? 

(75)  Add  together  the  populations  of  the  ten  largest  cities,  and  compare  the  result 
with  the  total  for  the  ten  largest  in  the  New  England  States.  (See  table,  Appen- 
dix, pp.  iv-vii.) 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  What  do  you  know  of  the  negro  life  and  customs  of  the 
South?  (2)  Show  several  ways  in  which  New  England  and  the  Southern  States 
are  dependent  on  each  other.  (3)  What  would  be  the  effect  on  the  cotton  manu- 
facturing of  England  if  the  United  States  engaged  in  war  with  that  country? 
(4)  Find  what  the  effect  was  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  (5)  Near  what 
places  were  some  of  the  great  battles  of  the  war  fought  ?  (6)  What  other  inven- 
tions may  well  be  compared  with  that  of  the  cotton  gin  in  importance  ?  (7)  Try 
raising  some  rice  in  the  schoolroom.  (8)  Raise  some  tobacco,  cotton,  and  sugar 
cane.  (9)  About  how  much  sugar  does  one  family  use  each  year?  (10)  Find 
out  why  the  cultivation  of  rice  is  unhealthful  work.  (11)  Find  out  something 
about  Indian  reservations  and  the  methods  employed  by  the  United  States  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  Indians.  (12)  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  expect- 
ing the  cotton  mills  in  New  England  to  prove  less  profitable,  now  that  the  South 
is  developing  such  mills?  (13)  Find  out  how  much  farther  it  is  from  New 
Orleans  to  London  than  from  New  York.  What  effect  should  you  think  its  greater 
distance  from  Europe  would  have  on  the  growth  of  New  Orleans?  (14)  Through 
what  waters  would  a  boat  go  from  New  Orleans  to  Kansas  City?  To  Pittsburg? 
To  Chicago  ?    To  San  Francisco  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book, 


FiQ.  106. 
Scenes  on  a  farm  in  Ohio.    Tell  what  you  see  in  each  pictur*. 


lit 


VIII.     CENTRAL   STATES 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  A  hundred  years  ago,  when  a  con- 
siderable number  of  pioneers  pushed  across  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains into  Ohio  and  Kentucky,  they  were  gladdened  by  the  sight  of 
immense  tracts  of  level  land.  For  hundreds  of  miles  the  plains  slope 
gently  toward  the  Mississippi ;  and  then,  beyond  that  river,  they 
slowly  rise  again  for  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  very  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  a  few  places,  as  in  western  South  Dakota  and  south- 
ern Missouri,  low  mountains  rise  above  the  plains  ;  but  most  of  the 
country  is  a  vast  level  tract,  quite  unlike  the  hilly  and  mountainous 
region  farther  east.  What  are  the  names  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Central  States?  (Fig.  104.) 

Not  only  did  the  settlers  find  the  land  level,  but  most  of  it  was 
free  from  forests  and  boulders.  In  many  portions  of  New  England 
weeks  of  hard  labor  were  required  to  remove  the  trees  from  a  single 
acre,  and  many  days  to  drag  away  or  bury  the  boulders.  On  the 
broad  plains,  however,  such  labor  was  unnecessary,  for  there  were 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles  covered  only  with  grass. 
These  treeless  plains  became  known  as  the  prairies  (p.  26). 

While  boulders  are  abundant  in  some  places,  the  glacier  has  in 
most  sections  left  a  deep,  rich  soil,  free  from  stones.  The  reason  for 
this  is,  that  here  the  glacier  found  softer  rocks  to  grind  up  into  soil 
than  in  New  England,  and  was  therefore  more  easily  able  to  reduce' 
them  to  small  fragments.  In  many  sections,  as  in  parts  of  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Ohio,  the  glacial  drift  is  one  or  two  hundred  feet  deep. 
It  is  the  deposit  of  this  drift  which  has  caused  the  thousands  of  lakes 
in  Minnesota  and  other  states. 

The  summers  are  too  short  for  cotton,  but  they  are  long  and  hot 
enough  for  numerous  other  crops.  The  rainfall  is  also  sufficient  for 
crops,  except  in  the  extreme  western  part,  which  is  arid,  like  western 
Texas  (p.  100). 

Settlement  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  —  The  conditions  seemed 
favorable  for  agriculture;  and,  in  spite  of  danger  from  Indians,  the 
settlers  poured  across  the  gaps  in  the  mountains,  following  the  Great 
Lakes  or  the  Ohio  River  and  its  tributaries.     At  first  only  a  few  ven- 

119 


120  NORTH    AMERICA 

tured  in,  traveling  until  they  reached  a  spot  which  suited  their  fancy. 
There  they  built  rude  log  huts,  and  settled  down  to  a  solitary  exist- 
ence, one  family  being  perhaps  miles  away  from  its  nearest  neighbor. 
As  more  persons  came  and  wished  to  proceed  farther  westward, 
they  built  flatboats  to  navigate  the  rivers,  and  they  settled  in  groups 
along  the  river  banks,  forming  villages  which  soon  grew  into  towns 
and  cities.  Their  life  was  of  the  simplest  kind,  each  family  depend- 
ing largely  upon  itself  for  whatever  it  needed  (Primary  Book,  p.  82). 
Some  articles  had  to  be  purchased ;  for  though  the  rich  soil  produced 
abundant  crops,  the  pioneers  still  needed  sugar,  cotton  cloth,  tools, 
and  medicines.  Since  almost  all  this  region  drained  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  most  accessible  place  where  such  supplies  could  be  obtained 
was  New  Orleans.  Consequently  the  products  of  the  farm  were 
floated  on  flatboats  to  that  point,  and  there  sold  or  exchanged  for  the 
articles  desired. 

A  great  improvement  was  made  when  steam  came  into  use.  The  first 
steamboat  on  these  Western  rivers  was  the  New  Orleans,  which  started  out 
from  Pittsburg  in  1811.  "  As  it  ran  down  the  Ohio,  making  extraordinary 
speed  in  comparison  with  anything  before  known,  the  quiet  denizens  of  the 
forests  along  the  river  banks  were  amazed  and  frightened  by  the  strange 
apparition.  Not  a  few  of  the  niore  ignorant  folk  thought  the  Day  of  Judg- 
ment was  at  hand,  as  they  watched  the  showers  of  sparks  and  heard  the 
rush  of  the  wheels.  And  when  the  craft  stopped  at  Louisville,  well  along 
in  the  night,  and  let  off  steam,  the  roar  from  the  escape  pipes  brought  a  good 
share  of  the  town  tumbling  out  of  their  beds  to  see  what  was  the  matter." 

Canals,  similar  to  the  Erie  Canal  in  New  York  (p.  84),  were  also 
made,  and  the  benefits  of  another  invention  began  to  be  felt  soon 
after  the  year  1827.  In  that  year  the  first  railway  was  built  in  the 
United  States ;  and,  as  years  passed,  railway  lines  were  so  extended 
that  even  those  regions  that  were  at  a  distance  from  the  rivers  could 
.be  reached  easily  and  quickly. 

These  several  improvements  in  the  manner  of  traveling  and 
carrying  freight  have  exerted  an  immense  influence  upon  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  Mississippi  Valley  has  been  settled.  While  150 
years  had  been  consumed  in  pushing  the  settlements  westward  to 
Ohio  and  Kentucky,  it  required  less  than  one  quarter  of  that  time  to 
extend  them  twice  that  distance  farther  west.  Now,  in  spite  of  the 
great  cities  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  more  people  are  living  west  of 
Cincinnati  than  east  of  it  (Figs.  207  and  208),  and  the  greater  part 
1  •♦  The  United  States  of  America,"  by  N.  S.  Shaler,  Vol.  I,  p.  296. 


CENTRAL    STATES  121 

of  these  are  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Altogether,  including  the 
Southern  States,  that  valley  now  supports  a  population  of  about 
30,000,000.  Large  numbers  of  the  settlers  have  come  from  Europe, 
especially  from  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Ireland. 

Agriculture 

Millions  of  persons  in  Europe  and  in  our  coast  cities  look  to  this 
valley  for  their  bread,  meat,  and  other  food,  as  they  look  to  the  South 
for  cotton. 

A  Farm  in  Central  Ohio.  —  All  the  way  from  eastern  Ohio  to  cen- 
tral Nebraska,  agriculture  is  a  very  important  industry.     The  farms 


Fig.  107. 
Threshing  wheat  on  a  farm  in  Ohio. 

vary  greatly  in  size,  from  a  few  acres  to  several  thousand,  but  they 
usually  contain  from  80  to  160  acres.  In  the  main,  they  resemble 
the  one  in  Ohio  that  is  described  below. 

This  Ohio  farm  of  160  acres  has  a  house  upon  it  in  which  the 
family  lives,  with  a  barn  near  by  for  horses,  milch  cows,  and  hay,  and 
with  a  few  sheds  around  it  for  grain  and  farming  implements. 

A  windmill  in  the  rear  keeps  the  milk  house  well  supplied  with 
cold  water,  and  also  fills  the  water  troughs  in  the  barnyard.  On  one 
side  is  an  orchard  having  apple,  peach,  and  pear  trees,  with  a  few- 
rows  of  berry  bushes  in  one  part,  and  a  chicken  house  in  another, 
where  enough  chickens  are  raised  to  supply  some  meat  and  all  the 
eggs  that  are  needed,  with  perhaps  some  to  sell.  On  one  side  of  the 
front  yard  are  a  few  beehives,  and  back  of  them,  between  the  orchard 
and  the  barn,  is  a  garden  for  vegetables.  Still  back  of  that  are 
several  pig  pens,  in  which  hogs  are  fattened  for  home  use  and  also 
for  the  market. 

10— A  • 


122  NORTH    AMERICA 

Farther  away  from  the  house  are  fields  in  which  there  are  at 
least  three  or  four  different  kinds  of  crops.  Every  farmer  in  that 
vicinity  expects  to  grow  corn,  perhaps  sixty  acres  of  it,  some  grass 
for  grazing  and  for  hay,  and  wheat  or  some  other  kind  of  grain. 
After  these  crops  are  harvested,  they  are  either  sold,  or  fed  to  stock 
—  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  or  sheep  —  upon  the  farm.  The  latter  plan 
is  often  followed,  chiefly  because  it  pays  better  to  fatten  stock  and 
sell  it  than  to  sell  the  crops  themselves.  There  are  generally  two  or 
three  good  milch  cows  on  hand,  which  not  only  supply  the  family 
with  fresh  milk  and  butter,  but  furnish  some  cream  or  butter  to  sell. 

Since  there  are  only  three  other  houses  in  sight  of  this  farmhouse, 
and  there  is  no  store  or  post  office  nearer  than  two  and  a  half  miles, 


Fig.  108. 
A  fruit  orchard  in  Kansas. 

the  farmer  and  his  family  may  not  meet  with  other  persons  for  sev- 
eral days  at  a  time,  although  they  often  see  acquaintances  driving 
by.  In  the  busier  season,  from  spring  till  fall,  they  make  few  trips 
to  town.  Frequently,  however,  they  have  a  telephone  by  which  they 
can  talk  with  neighbors  and  with  friends  and  merchants  in  town,  while 
the  rural  free  delivery  system  brings  the  post  office  to  their  doors. 

Some  persons  would  not  care  for  such  a  life  because  it  is  too 
lonesome,  and  there  is  too  much  hard  work  connected  with  it.  But 
this  farmer  enjoys  it  greatly,  because  he  likes  to  take  care  of  his 
stock,  to  work  in  the  soil,  and  to  watch  the  crops  grow.  In  addition 
to  this,  he  is  able  to  raise  most  of  his  own  food,  and  his  whole  life  is 
more  independent  than  that  of  persons  in  a  village  or  city.  From 
such  farms  have  come  some  of  our  ablest  and  best-educated  men. 
Can  you  name  two  Presidents  who  spent  their  childhood  on  farms 
of  the  Central  States  ?  Where  were  their  homes  ?  What  can  you 
tell  about  their  early  life  ? 

Fruits.  —  While  each  farm  usually  has  a  small  orchard,  like  the  one 
mentioned  above,  fruit  raising  is  a  special  industry  in  those  parts  where 
climate  and  soil  are  favorable,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


CENTRAL    STATES 


123 


The  immense  area  of  water  renders  the  summers  cooler  and  the  winters 
warmer  than  they  would  otherwise  be.  Accordingly,  we  find  the  Chau- 
tauqua grape  belt  (p.  75)  extending  from  New  York  a  long  distance  into 
Ohio ;  and  quantities  of  such  fruit  as  peaches  and  apples  are  produced  on 
the  peninsula  of  Michigan.  With  what  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  can  this 
fruit  region  be  best  compared  ?  (p.  75.) 

Fine  Stock  in  Kentucky.  —  Kentucky  is  famous  for  its  blue  grass 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Lexington  and  for  its  fine  stock,  especially 
horses  and  mules.  The  reason  why  this  grass  is  so  nourishing  is  that 
the  Kentucky  soil  in  this  section  is  composed  of  bits  of  decayed  lime- 
stone in  which  is  found  an  abundance  of  lime  phosphate,  an  excellent 
plant  food  (p.  108).  This  phosphate  is  supplied  from  the  shells  of 
small  sea  animals  which  were  buried  in  the  sea  bottom  millions  of 
years  ago.  As  the  lime- 
stone decays,  the  phos- 
phate mixes  with  other 
rock  bits  and  thus  fertil- 
izes the  soil. 

Caverns.  —  The  abun- 
dance of  limestone  in  Ken- 
tucky is  the  reason  for  the 
numerous  caves  that  exist 
here.  Limestone,  although 
hard,  is  more  easily  dis- 
solved by  water  than  other 
rocks ;  and  as  the  rain  water 
seeps  into  the  earth  and  en- 
ters the  limestone  along  the 
joints,  it  slowly  dissolves 
the  rock  away.  In  this 
manner  many  a  long  tunnel 
has  been  made,  the  largest 
that  is  known  being  the 
Mammoth  Cave  in  Ken- 
tucky. 

Not  all  parts  of  Mam- 
moth Cave  are  yet  known, 
but  it   is   said  that    there 

are  more  than  150  miles  of  galleries.  They  are  found  to  wind  about 
irregularly,  some  being  many  feet  below  others,  and  all  together  forming 
a  network,  or  labyrinth,  into  which  one  dares  not  venture  without  a 
guide.  The  entire  cavern  is  as  dark  as  any  mine,  and  the  only  sound 
to  be  heard  is  that  of  trickling  water. 


Fig.  109. 

A  view  in  one  of  the  Kentucky  caverns,  showing  the 
icicle-like  stalactites,  which  are  made  of  limy  mat- 
ter deposited  by  the  water  which  slowly  trickles 
from  the  cave  roof. 


124 


JSfOETE    AMEBIC  A 


Corn.  —  Corn  raising  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries  of 
the  Central  States  (Fig.  209,  p.  220).  A  farmer  usually  expects  to 
devote  from  one  third  to  one  half  of  his  land  to  it;  therefore,  in 
traveling  across  these  states  in  summer,  one  sees  corn  fields  in  every 
direction  (Fig.  110). 


Fig.  110. 
A  field  in  Kansas  entirely  given  over  to  corn. 


The  seed  is  planted  in  rows  in  the  springtime.  Soon  the  little  stalk 
appears  above  ground,  growing  rapidly  during  the  hot  summer  months, 
until  a  height  of  seven  to  ten  feet  is  reached.  In  order  to  keep  the  soil 
soft  and  kill  the  weeds,  the  ground  between  the  rows  is  plowed  when 
the  corn  is  young ;  but  as  it  grows  higher, 
the  shade  of  its  own  leaves  protects  it  both 
from  drought  and  weeds. 

If  the  stalk  is  to  be  used  as  fodder  for 
cattle  in  winter,  it  is  cut  before  frost,  when 
the  kernels  on  the  cob  are  still  somewhat  soft 
and  milky,  although  much  harder  than  the 
green  corn  which  we  eat.     If  left  until  after 
frost,  the  grain  hardens,  and  then  the 
harvest  season  begins.      Men   drive 
into  the   fields  in  wagons,  and  tear 
the  husks  from  the  ear,  spending  day 
after  day  at  that  kind  of  work. 

Corn  is  put  to  many  uses. 
Much  that  is  raised  is  fed  to  cattle 
and  hogs,  as  already  stated.  Some 
is  made  into  hominy  and  breakfast 

£      J  .    ,  ,    -  ,  Two   ears   of  com,   one  with  the  husk 

toods,  or  into  corn  meal  for  musn  stripped  down  to  ahow  the  kernels. 


CENTEAL    MTATXM  125 

and  corn  bread.  Starch  is  another  product ;  but  one  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive uses  of  the  grain  is  in  the  manufacture  of  whisky  in  a  diBtillery. 
There  are  many  distilleries  in  St.  Louis,  Louisville,  and  other 
cities  within  the  corn  belt.  Peoria,  in  central  Illinois,  is  another 
great  center  for  the  manufactuie  of  whisky  and  other  materials, 
from  corn.  Much  corn  is  shipped  eastward  to  the  seaboard  and 
beyond,  and  all  the  cities  along  the  way  make  profit  from  handling  it. 

Wheat.  —  This  grain,  like  corn,  is  produced  in  all  the  Central 
States  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country  (Fig.  211,  p.  221). 
It  is  an  especially  important  product  in  Kansas,  Ohio,  and  Indiana ; 
but  the  section  which  at  present  is  most  noted  for  wheat  is  the 
valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  In  this  valley  is  a  strip  of 
land,  including  western  Minnesota,  eastern  Dakota,  and  a  portion  of 
Manitoba,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  wheat  regions  in  the  world. 

One  of  the  reasons  for  its  fertility  dates  back  to  the  time  when 
the  glacier  was  melting  away  from  this  region.  The  ice  then 
stretched  across  the  Red  River  valley,  and  forced  that  river  to  seek 
an  outlet  southward.  A  broad  lake  was  thus  formed,  with  an  ice 
dam  on  the  north,  and  in  the  water  of  this  lake  the  sediment  was  de- 
posited which  forms  much  of  the  soil  of  the  wheat  region.  When 
the  ice  melted  entirely  away  from  the  valley,  the  Red  River  was 
once  more  able  to  flow  northward,  and  then  the  lake  disappeared. 

The  land  there  is  almost  as  level  as  the  surface  of  the  sea; 
it  is  so  level,  in  fact,  that  after  a  rain  the  water  stands  in  shallow 
sheets  in  the  fields.  It  is  necessary  to  elevate  the  roads  a  foot  or 
more  above  the  surrounding  land,  with  ditches  on  either  side.  In 
every  direction  there  is  nothing  to  break  the  view  except  a  farm- 
house every  half  mile  or  so,  with  a  few  trees  around  it.  Over  these 
open  plains  the  wind  sweeps  with  terrific  force,  somewhat  as  upon 
the  ocean,  and  fierce,  blinding  snow  squalls,  or  blizzards^  are  not 
uncommon. 

Upon  these  plains  one  may  ride  northward  on  the  train  toward  Winni- 
peg all  day  long,  and  see  scarcely  a  single  crop  besides  wheat.  Most  of 
the  farms  are  of  moderate  size,  but  some  are  enormous.  For  example,  the 
Dalrymple  farm,  at  Casselton,  North  Dakota,  contains  fifteen  thousand 
acres.     How  many  square  miles  is  that  ? 

This  farm  is  divided  into  six  parts,  with  farm  buildings  upon  each. 
To  prepare  the  ground,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  men  at  a  time  plow  and 
sow  the  seed  on  each  division.  One  takes  the  lead,  the  next  follows  close 
behind,  then  comes  the  third,  fourth,  and  so  on.  The  grain  is  harvested 
on  a  similar  plan  (Fig.  112).     One  hundred  and  twenty  men  and  three 


126 


NORTH    AMERICA 


hundred  horses  are  employed  in  the  planting  season,  and  three  hundred 
men  during  the  harvest.  As  one  acre  usually  produces  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  bushels,  an  immense  amount  of  grain  is  obtained  from  this  one 
farm.     How  many  pounds  per  acre  would  this  be  ? 

The  great  quantity  of  wheat  produced  in  the  Red  River  valley 
of  the  North  and  the  neighboring  region  has  helped  in  the  growth 
of  the  cities  of  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Duluth,  and  scores  of 
others  along  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Mississippi  River,  and  even  on  the 
Atlantic  coast. 


Fig. 112. 
Harvesting  wheat  in  the  Red  River  valley. 

Other  Grains.  —  Besides  corn  and  wheat,  two  other  grains  are  raised  in 
great  quantities  in  these  states  ;  namely,  oats  and  barley.  The  former  is  a 
common  food  for  horses,  but  the  latter  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  beer.  The  great  breweries,  to  be  seen  in  every  large  city,  consume 
immense  quantities  of  barley  in  order  to  obtain  the  malt  which  is  needed 
in  making  beer.  In  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  and  in  many  other  places, 
beer  making  is  one  of  the  important  industries.  Milwaukee  is  also  noted 
for  beer,  much  as  Peoria  is  for  distilled  spirits. 


Cattle  Ranching.  —  After  passing  westward  from  the  fertile  Red 
River  valley  of  the  North,  one  finds  the  farmhouses  diminishing  in 
number,  and  the  country  becoming  more  and  more  arid,  until,  beyond 
the  100th  meridian,  there  is  practically  no  farming  without  irrigation. 
At  the  same  time  one  gradually  rises  higher  and  higher,  until,  near 
the  base  of  the  mountains,  he  has  reached  an  elevation  of  fully  a 
mile  above  the  sea.  This  dry  plateau,  extending  from  Canada  to 
southwestern  Texas  (p.  99),  is  commonly  known  as  the  Great 
Plains. 

The  entire  semi-arid  western  third  of  the  western  tier  of  states  — 
from  Texas  to  North  Dakota  —  is  therefore  devoted  chiefly  to  ranch- 


Fig.  113. 

Scenes  in  the  ranch  country.  Upper  picture,  a  typical  ranch  house  on  the 
banks  of  a  stream  in  western  North  Dakota.  Middle  picture,  a  ranch 
house  and  "  the  range."  Lower  picture,  a  group  of  cowboys  at  the  ranch 
bouse. 


m 


128 


NORTH   AMERICA 


ing.      Following  is  a  description  of    ranch  life  in  western  North 
Dakota,  which  much  resembles  such  life  in  other  states  :  — 

There  is  little  water  anywhere  else  than  in  the  widely  separated  streams ; 
and  there  are  almost  no  trees  except  upon  their  banks.     As  the  ranchman 


Fig.  114. 
A  scene  during  a  round-up,  when  great  numbers  of  cattle  are  bunched  together. 

must  have  both  water  and  timber,  he  locates  his  house  (Fig.  113),  with  its 
few  stockades  or  corrals,  and  sheds,  within  easy  reach  of  these  necessities. 
If  there  is  no  neighbor  within  several  miles,  it  is  all  the  better,  for  his 
cattle  are  then  more  certain  of  abundant  grass. 

A  single  ranchman  may  own  from  ten  to  twenty  thousand  head,  and 
yet  they  are  all  allowed  to  wander  about  upon  public  land,  called  "  the 


Fig. 115. 

Picture  showing  the  mother  with  her  brand,  a  calf  following  her,  and  a  cowboy  about  to 

catch  the  calf  and  brand  it. 


CENTBAL    STATES 


129 


range."  Usually  they  keep  within  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  of  the  ranch 
house ;  but  sometimes  they  stray  one  or  two  hundred  miles  away. 

Twice  a  year  there  is  a  general  collection,  or  roxmdrup  (Fig.  114),  of 
cattle,  —  the  first  round-up  occurring  in  May  or  June,  and  the  other  early 
in  the  fall.  One  object  of  the  first  is  to  find  the  calves  that  have  been  born 
during  the  winter. 

Since  there  are  few  fences,  cattle  belonging  to  ranches  which  are  even 
a  hundred  miles  apart  become  mixed  during  the  winter,  and  those  in  a 
large  herd  may  belong  to  a  score  of  different  ranchmen.  Each  cattleman 
has  a  certain  mark,  or  brand  (Fig.  115),  such  as  a  letter,  a  cross,  a  horse- 
shoe, or  some  other  device,  which  must  be  burnt  into  the  skin  of  each  of 
the  cattle. 

A  round-up,  which  lasts  several  weeks,  is  planned  by  a  number  of 
ranchmen  together.     A  squad  of  perhaps  twenty  cowboys,  accompanied 


ponies, 


by  a  wagon  and  provisions,  a  large  number  of  riding  horses,  or 
and  a  cook,  go  in  one  direction,  and 
other  wagons  with  similar  outfits  set 
out  in  other  directions.  Before  sep- 
arating in  the  morning,  the  members 
of  a  squad  agree  upon  a  certain  camp- 
ing place  for  the  night,  and  then 
they  scour  the  country  to  bring  the 
cattle  together,  riding  perhaps  sixty 
or  eighty  miles  during  the  day. 
Each  ranchman  knows  his  own  cattle 
by  the  brand  they  bear;  and  since 
the  calves  follow  their  mothers  (Fig. 
115),  there  is  no  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining what  brand  they  shall 
receive.  After  branding  the  calves, 
each  ranchman  drives  his  cattle 
homeward  to  feed  during  the  sum- 
mer within  a  few  dozen  miles  of 
their  owner's  home. 

The  second  large  round-up  is 
similar  to  the  first,  except  that  its  object  is  to  bring  together  the  steers,  or 
male  cattle,  and  ship  them  away  to  market ;  it  is  accordingly  called  the 
beef  roimd-iqx  A  ranchman  who  owns  twenty  thousand  cattle  may  sell 
nearly  half  that  number  in  a  season.  As  the  steers  are  collected  they  are 
loaded  upon  trains  and  shipped  to  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis, 
Chicago,  and  even  farther  east.  Millions  of  cattle  are  slaughtered  every 
year  in  these  cities  (Fig.  122),  and  the  meat  is  sent  to  England  and  Ger- 
many, as  well  as  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Very  often  the  cattle  find  so  little  water,  and  such  poor  pasturage,  that 
they  fail  to  fatten  properly,  and  must  be  fed  for  a  time.  This  may  be 
done  upon  the  irrigated  fields  near  the  rivers  in  the  ranch  country,  or  on 
the  farms  farther  east,  as  in  Kansas,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska,  and  even  in  Uli- 


Ftq.  116. 

A  cowboy  with  his  rope,  or  lariat,  with 
which  he  captures  the  cattle  by  throwing 
a  noose  over  their  necks  or  around  their 
legs. 


130  NOBTH   AMERICA 

nois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Thus  we  see  how  a  great  product  of  one  section 
of  the  United  States  is  made  to  furnish  employment  and  food  for  millions 
of  persons  far  away. 

The  lives  of  ranchmen  and  cowboys  are  exciting  and  interesting,  most 
of  each  day  being  spent  in  the  saddle  (Fig.  116).  They  are  so  far  sepa- 
rated from  other  people  that  they  must  take  care  of  themselves  in  a  sur- 
prising number  of  ways.  For  instance,  a  ranchman  must  build  his  own 
house,  kill  his  own  beef  and  dress  it,  put  up  his  own  ice,  raise  his  own 
vegetables,  do  his  own  blacksmithing,  find  his  own  fuel,  and  even  keep 
school  for  his  children  if  the  latter  receive  an  education.  He  affords  a 
good  example  of  the  pioneer  life  in  early  days. 

Lumbering.  —  Although  so  much  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation, 
or  given  over  to  ranching,  forests  are  found  in  many  sections.     When 


Fig.  117. 
Floating  timber  on  a  stream  in  Wisconsin. 

the  region  was  first  visited,  most  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Mich- 
igan was  tree-covered,  as  well  as  much  of  Ohio,  southern  Indiana, 
and  Illinois,  and  the  Black  Hills  of  western  South  Dakota.  Even 
now  some  forest  is  left,  although  there  has  been  so  much  lumbering 
that  large  areas  have  been  entirely  cleared. 

In  Wisconsin,  for  instance,  in  traveling  northward  from  the  well- 
cultivated  southern  portion,  one  comes  to  a  section  where  farmers  are 
just  taking  the  place  of  lumbermen.  Many  log  huts  stand  there  in 
small  clearings,  with  the  green  fields  still  dotted  by  tree  stumps  ;  but 
beyond,  little  else  than  woods  can  be  seen.  In  these  forests  are  many 
different  kinds  of  northern  trees,  especially  the  evergreens,  such  as 
hemlock,  spruce,  white  pine,  and  cedar,  and  scattered  hardwoods, 
such  as  oak,  birch,  and  maple. 

I^  the  neighborhood  of  the  Great  Lakes  lumbering  is  actively 
carried  on,  and  iu  much  the  same  manner  as  in  Maine  (Fig.  117), 


CENTBAL    STATES 


131 


although  a  great  deal  of  the  timber  is  brought  to  the  sawmills 
by  wagons  or  rail,  instead  of  being  floated  a  long  distance  down 
stream.  The  excellent  water  power  in  the  Mississippi  River  at 
Minneapolis  early  attracted  large  sawmills  and  made  that  city 
famous  for  lumber  (Fig.  127,  p.  141).  Other  mills  are  situated 
farther  down  the  Mississippi,  as  at  Winona.  They  are  also  numer- 
ous at  DuLUTH,  and  at  Superior,  which  is  just  across  the  state  line 
in  Wisconsin. 

Near  the  forest  regions,  along  the  streams  and  on  the  shores  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  other  articles  of 
wood  is  an  important  industry.     Chicago  is  especially  noted  for  its 


FlG.  118. 
A  sawmill  in  Wisconsin. 

manufacture  of  furniture ;  and  on  many  of  the  small  streams  of  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin  (Fig.  118),  and  Michigan,  where  there  is  water 
power,  there  are  sawmills,  furniture  factories,  and  planing  mills. 
Some  of  these  are  at  La  Crosse  and  Oshkosh  in  Wisconsin,  and 
Saginaw,  Bay  City,  and  Grand  Rapids  in  Michigan.  Many 
school  desks  are  made  at  the  last  place. 


Mineral  Products 

Building  Stone.  —  It  has  been  stated  (pp.  3  and  5)  that  the  ocean  once 
covered  much  of  this  section,  and  that  layers  of  sediment  deposited  under 
the  water  have  hardened  into  rock  strata,  which  have  been  raised  to  form 
the  dry  land.     During  their  uplifting  they  were  not  folded  and  broken^  ub 


182  NOltTH   AMEBIOA 

mountain  rocks  are,  but  the  layers  were  left  in  a  horizontal  position,  as 
when  first  laid  down  in  the  ocean.  The  streams,  cutting  their  valleys 
downward  through  the  soil,  have  brought  many  of  these  rock  strata  to 
light,  and  among  them  are  beds  of  limestone  and  sandstone  which  are  of 
value  as  building  stones. 

Ohio  and  Indiana  are  especially  noted  for  their  limestone  and  sand- 
stone, which  are  shipped  in  all  directions  for  building  purposes.  There 
are  also  slates  and  granites  in  the  hilly  and  mountainous  sections,  as  there 
are  in  hilly  and  mountainous  New  England  (p.  53). 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas.  —  Power  for  raanufacturing  is  also 
abundantly  provided  in  this  region.  When  oil  and  natural  gas  were 
first  discovered  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  it  was  supposed  that 
they  did  not  exist  elsewhere;  but  great  quantities  of  both  these  sub- 
stances are  now  obtained  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  West  Virginia,  Texas, 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  California,  and  other  states.  Many  farmers  whose 
land  is  capable  of  producing  only  the  usual  crops  have  suddenly 
become  rich  by  the  discovery  of  oil  or  gas  in  the  rocks  far  beneath 
the  soil.  In  fact,  these  materials  are  so  abundant  in  some  places, 
that  towns  have  sprung  up  like  mushrooms,  —  as  Findl AY  in  western 
Ohio.  The  way  in  which  gas  and  oil  are  formed,  and  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  put,  have  already  been  described  (p.  78). 

Coal.  —  This  mineral  fuel  is  much  more  widespread  in  the  Cen- 
tral States  than  oil  and  gas.  In  some  places  the  beds  lie  near  the 
surface,  like  rock  in  quarries,  and  then  coal  mining  is  very  simple ; 
in  others  it  is  buried  so  deep  that  long  shafts  must  be  sunk  to  reach 
it.  Being  so  valuable  a  fuel  for  houses  and  manufactories,  the  coal 
is  mined  in  many  places. 

While  Pennsylvania  produces  two  kinds  of  coal,  anthracite  and 
bituminous,  the  Central  States  have  only  the  latter  variety.  It  is 
bituminous  coal  that  is  used  in  making  coke ;  and  because  there  is 
so  much  of  this  kind  of  coal,  many  of  the  cities  of  these  states  are 
engaged  in  iron  manufacturing.  Soft  coal  produces  more  smoke 
than  the  hard  anthracite,  and  those  cities  which  burn  great  quanti- 
ties of  it  are  very  sooty  in  consequence. 

Iron  Ore.  —  Formerly  Pennsylvania  was  the  chief  iron-producing 
state,  having  both  coal  and  iron  ore ;  but  in  recent  years  explorers 
in  the  forest  wilderness  northwest  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  near  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Superior,  have  discovered  what  seem  to  be  inex- 
haustible beds  of  iron  ore.  In  some  places  the  ore  is  so  soft  that, 
like  clay,  it  can  be  dug  out  by  steam  shovels,  and  so  near  the  surface 


VENTRAL    STATES 


133 


that  the  mines  are  open  pits  (Fig.  119).     That  is  the  case,  for  ex- 
ample, at  ISHPEMING,  in  northern  Michigan. 

This  Lake  Superior  district  is  now  the  leading  iron-producing 
center  in  the  world.  The  main  difficulty,  however,  is  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  coal  in 
that  region.  Con- 
sequently, in  order 
that  the  ore  may  be 
reduced  to  the 
metal,  either  coal 
must  be  trans- 
ported thither,  or 
the  ore  must  be 
carried  to  the  coal 
regions.  The  lat- 
ter process  has 
proved  the  cheaper. 


Fia.  119. 
An  open  iron  mine. 


Fortunately  the 
ore  deposits  are 
located  near  water- 
ways. 

The  ore  is  mined,  loaded  upon  cars,  and  sent  over  short  lines  of  railway 
to  the  lake  shore,  where  it  is  distributed  by  vessels  to  manufacturing  centers. 

Boats  with  such  a  cargo  set  out  from  the  lake  ports  of  Duluth, 
Superior,  Ashland,  and  Marquette  for  manufacturing  centers 


Fig.  120. 
Iron  ore  docks  at  Conneaut,  Ohio. 


134  NORTH   AMERICA 

all  along  the  lakes.  As  the  ore  must  reach  a  point  where  coal  is 
easily  obtained,  it  is  taken  to  Chicago,  Detroit,  Cleveland, 
Buffalo,  etc.  Notice  how  close  to  these  cities  the  coal  beds  ex- 
tend (Fig.  220). 

The  Lake  Superior  iron  district  is  in  three  states,  —  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  the  most  important  being  Michigan 
(Fig.  222),  and  the  least  important  Wisconsin.  These  three  states 
together  produce  seventeen  times  as  much  ore  as  Pennsylvania. 
The  sudden  development  of  mining  in  this  region  has  brought  so 
many  people  that  numerous  towns  and  cities  have  grown  up;  but 
the  lack  of  coal  has  prevented  much  iron  manfacturing. 

Copper.  —  Another  very  important  metal  found  in  the  Central 
States  is  copper.  This  occurs  in  the  pores  of  a  lava  rock  and 
between  the  grains  of  a  pebble  beach  which,  though  now  hardened 
into  rock,  was  formed  in  the  ancient  sea.  Indians  and  the  early 
explorers  found  fragments  of  copper  on  the  surface,  and  mines  were 
later  opened  in  the  lava  and  beach  rocks  of  the  small  peninsula 
marked  Mineral  Range  on  the  map  (Fig.  104). 

Some  of  these  mines  are  very  deep,  one  of  the  shafts  reaching  to  a 
depth  of  about  a  mile.  When  the  ore  is  drawn  to  the  surface,  it  is  found 
mixed  with  so  much  beach  rock  and  lava,  that  it  must  be  crushed  to  a 
powder  under  powerful  hammers,  or  stamps;  then  water  is  run  over  it  in 
order  to  carry  away  the  bits  of  rock  and  leave  the  heavier  particles  of 
copper.  Even  after  this,  some  foreign  substances  are  still  mixed  with  the 
copper.  Since  the  purposes  for  which  this  metal  is  used  demand  that  it 
be  very  pure,  it  must  next  be  placed  in  a  large  smelter  to  be  melted  and 
thus  separated  from  the  impurities.  Among  the  latter  is  a  little  silver, 
which  is  saved.  The  pure  copper  is  allowed  to  run  out  of  the  furnace 
and  cool  in  bars  to  be  shipped  away. 

The  largest  mines  in  this  region  are  near  together,  and  so  many  men 
are  required  to  obtain  the  ore,  and  change  it  to  pure  metal,  that  towns  of 
large  size  have  grown  up  in  a  wilderness  which  otherwise  could  scarcely 
have  attracted  many  people.  Within  a  few  miles  of  two  or  three  of  the 
most  important  mines  is  a  number  of  towns  having  a  total  population  of 
fifty  thousand,  the  largest  being  Calumet.  Many  of  these  persons  are 
miners  and  families  of  miners  ;  but  there  must,  of  course,  be  storekeepers, 
physicians,  teachers,  ministers,  etc.,  and  they  all  depend  for  a  living  upon 
the  precious  copper  buried  far  beneath  the  surface. 

Copper  is  valuable  in  many  ways.  It  is  one  of  the  metals  used 
to  make  bronze,  and  also  brass ;  but  of  late  years  the  wide  introduc- 
tion of  electricity  has  created  a  new  and  even  greater  demand  for  this 


I 


CENTRAL    STATES  1J5 

metal.  Since  copper  is  a  substance  which  transmits  electricity  with 
much  less  resistance  than  other  common  metals,  it  is  the  best 
material  for  trolley  wires,  the  wire  of  long  distance  telephones, 
electric  bells  in  houses,  etc.  In  every  city  in  the  land  much  copper 
is  used. 

As  in  the  case  of  iron  ore,  the  metal  is  shipped  to  points  along  the 
lakes,  and  elsewhere,  by  water  and  by  rail,  much  of  it  going  to  the 
metal  manufactories  in  the  New  England  cities  (p.  61).  Name  some 
goods  that  must  be  shipped  into  this  section  instead  of  away  from  it. 

Lead,  Zinc,  etc.  —  Lead  and  zinc,  two  other  metals  found  in  the 
Central  States,  occur  together  in  pockets  and  little  veins,  in  layers  of 
limestone.  The  ores  are  mined  in  many  places,  as  at  Joplin,  Missouri, 
and  then  sent  to  the  proper  kind  of  furnaces,  where  the  pure  metals  are 
extracted. 

A  large  part  of  our  supply  of  lead  and  zinc  is  obtained  from  Missouri, 
Kansas,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  the  first-named  state  producing  more  zinc 
than  any  other  in  the  Union.  For  what  purposes  are  lead  and  zinc  used  ? 
Of  what  use  should  you  think  this  lead  was  to  the  early  pioneers  ? 

Besides  these  metals,  gold  is  mined  in  considerable  quantities  in  the 
Black  Hills  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  South  Dakota. 

Much  salt  is  also  obtained  in  the  Central  States,  especially  in  Michi- 
gan and  Kansas. 

Clays.  —  The  deep  soil  left  in  the  prairie  states  by  the  glacier  is  often 
a  clay  which  is  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks;  and,  as  in  other 
sections  of  the  country  (p.  83),' there  are  many  brickyards,  especially 
near  the  large  cities.  From  this  same  kind  of  clay,  other  articles,  such  as 
flower  pots  and  drain  pipes,  are  manufactured.  During  recent  years, 
when  drainage  of  farm  land  has  become  so  common,  the  manufacture  of 
tile  for  that  purpose  has  developed  into  a  great  industry,  many  a  small 
town  having  a  tile  factory.  These  objects  are  made  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  brick  (p.  83),  except  that  the  clay  is  pressed  into  other  forms. 

There  is  a  number  of  places  where  fine  pottery  also  is  made.  For 
instance,  the  very  high  grade,  known  as  Rookwood  ware,  is  manufactured 
in  Cincinnati.  The  best  of  clay  is  needed  for  this,  and  some  of  it  must 
be  brought  from  a  distance.  The  first  step  in  making  a  vase  is  to  wet  a. 
lump  of  clay  so  that  it  may  easily  be  molded.  Then  it  is  shaped  upon  a 
rapidly  revolving  wheel,  known  as  the  potter's  wheel  (Fig.  74),  which  has 
been  in  use  for  centuries.  There  it  is  whirled  rapidly  round  while  a  man 
molds  it  with  his  hands,  in  a  very  few  minutes  changing  a  shapeless 
lump  into  a  delicately  formed  vase.  It  must  then  be  baked.  After  the 
baking,  flowers  or  other  ornaments  may  be  painted  upon  it.  The  surface 
is  finally  covered  with  a  substance  which,  when  baked,  produces  a  glaze. 
One  of  the  beauties  of  the  Rookwood  ware  is  the  peculiar  color  of  the 
glaze,  which  is  a  dark  brown  or  yellowish  brown. 


196  NORTH    AMERICA 

Principal  Cities  and  Shipping  Routes 

It  is  evident  that  the  raw  products  of  the  farms,  ranches,  forests, 
and  mines  in  the  Central  States  must  lead  to  much  commerce ;  and 
that,  since  coal  is  included  among  the  raw  products,  manufacturing 
must  also  be  developed.  This  means,  of  course,  that  there  must  be 
many  large  cities ;  and  since  the  Central  States  have  no  ocean  coast, 
we  naturally  find  them  along  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  three  great 
rivers,  —  the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  Missouri,  —  where  it  is  possible  to 
ship  goods  by  water.  Let  us  first  consider  those  along  the  Great 
Lakes. 

THE  LAKE  CITIES 

Duluth  and  Superior.  —  At  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior  there 
is  a  fine,  large  harbor,  one  side  being  in  Minnesota,  the  other  in  Wis- 
consin.    Upon  this  harbor  are  two  cities,  Duluth  and  Superior, 


Fig.  11^1. 
Lake  vessels,  the  one  in  front  being  called  a  whaleback. 

which  together  have  a  total  population  of  about  one  hundred 
thousand.  The  chief  products  of  this  vicinity  are  iron,  lumber,  and 
wheat,  which  are  shipped  eastward  in  immense  quantities  from  these 
two  ports.  Owing  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Minnesota  and 
Dakota  wheat  fields,  there  are  enormous  elevators  at  Duluth  for 
storing  grain,  and  flour  mills  for  grinding  it  up.  The  iron  ore 
docks,  sawmills,  and  lumber  wharves  are  also  busy  places. 

Goods  are  shipped  to  this  point  as  well  as  away  from  it ;  for  while  the 
people  in  this  section  have  some  materials  to  spare,  they  also  need  many 
others,  as  farming  implements,  clothing,  various  kinds  of  food,  furniture, 
and  coal.     These  goods  are  brought  cheaply,  because  the  vessels  carrying 


CENTRAL    STATES  187 

ore,  wheat,  and  lumber  eastward  must  have  something  to  bring  back.  As 
already  suggested  (p.  83),  it  is  the  needs  and  products  of  the  inhabitants 
of  this  distant  region  that  help  to  make  Buffalo,  Montreal,  and  New  York 
so  important,  and  to  keep  the  mills  and  factories  of  New  England  so  busy. 
Explain  how  this  is  true. 

At  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior  into  Lake  Huron  there  are  rapids  which 
interfere  with  navigation;  and  to  avoid  these  a  ship  canal,  called  the  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  or  "  Soo,"  canal,  has  been  dug.  On  its  banks  is  a  city  of  the 
same  name. 

Chicago.  —  While  Lake  Superior  extends  far  into  the  Central 
States  in  one  direction,  Lake  Michigan  reaches  a  long  way  in 
another ;  and  near  its  southern  extremity,  in  Illinois,  the  great 
city  of  Chicago  is  situated.  At  this  point  the  small  Chicago 
River  empties  into  the  lake,  forming  a  small  harbor,  and  in 
early  times  a  fort  was  located  there.  The  harbor  itself  was  formed 
thousands  of  years  ago  while  the  great  glacier  was  melting  away. 
At  that  time  the  ice  sheet  lay  across  Lake  Michigan,  forming  a  huge 
dam  which  prevented  the  waters  from  flowing  into  Lake  Huron  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  River.  This  compelled  the  water  to  find  an  outlet 
southward,  past  the  present  site  of  Chicago,  and  into  the  Illinois 
River  and  the  Mississippi.  It  was  the  wash  of  this  water  which 
dug  out  the  small  harbor. 

As  the  West  developed,  this  site  proved  to  be  a  most  advanta- 
geous one;  for  whenever  a  railway  was  built  from  the  East  to  the 
Northwest,  from  any  place  north  of  Washington,  it  was  necessary 
for  it  to  pass  around  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  Of  course, 
as  the  city  grew  in  size,  other  railways  were  built  to  it  because  it  was 
large;  and  now  they  approach  it  from  the  East,  West,  North,  and 
South  (Fig.  105). 

Chicago  is  the  nearest  lake  port  to  the  most  productive  grain 
region  in  the  world,  and  it  is  therefore  an  important  shipping  point 
for  grain.  It  is  also  within  easy  reach  of  the  coal  fields,  while 
lumber  and  iron  ore  are  readily  brought  to  it  by  boat.  These  facts 
have  caused  Chicago  to  grow  with  wonderful  rapidity,  so  that  it  has 
long  since  outgrown  its  small  natural  harbor,  which  has  been  en- 
larged by  extensive  breakwaters.  In  the  year  1840,  there  were  but 
4470  inhabitants;  in  1870,  300,000;  in  1900,  1,698,575.  To-day 
Chicago  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  the  New  World. 

Stock  Yards  of  Chicago.  —  Chicago  is  not  only  a  great  grain 
market,  but  also  the  most  important  meat  market  iu  the  world.    All 

11— A  • 


188 


NOBTB    AMEBICA 


the  grazing  states  of  the  West  ship  stock  to  this  point,  and  in  the 
city  itself  nearly  a  square  mile  is  taken  up  by  the  Union  Stock  Yards, 
consisting  of  large  sheds,  pens  with  high  fences,  and  troughs  for  food 
and  water  (Fig.  122).  Train  loads  of  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  are 
unloaded  there  every  day.  The  work  employs  about  thirty  thousand 
men,  which  indicates  how  extensive  it  is. 

The  products  of  the  packing  houses  are  several.  By  far  the 
most  important  is  meat ;  and  so  well  developed  is  the  industry  that 
most  of  the  cities  of  the  East  are  furnished  with  fresh  meat  from 


^^25*^: 


Fig.  122. 
The  Chicago  stock  yards. 


the  Western  cities.  It  may  be  several  weeks  after  the  meat  is  pre- 
pared for  food  before  it  reaches  the  table  ;  yet  all  this  time  it  is  kept 
fresh  by  the  use  of  ice.  Special  refrigerator  cars  are  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it. 

Besides  what  is  sold  fresh,  a  great  deal  is  canned.  The  fat  of 
the  hog  is  made  into  lard,  and  not  a  little  beef  fat  is  converted  into 
imitation  butter,  such  as  oleomargarine.  From  the  bones,  also, 
valuable  products  are  obtained.  Many  of  the  bones  are  burned  and 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  (p.  106) ;  and  the  horns  and  hoofs 
are  of  use  in  making  gelatine  and  glue. 

The  hides  are  made  into  shoes,  gloves,  harness,  and  other  goods. 
From  the  Western  packing  houses  the  great  shoe  factories  of  Lynn, 
Haverhill,  and  Brockton,  in  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  those  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  are  supplied  with  much  of  their  leather.     The 


CENTRAL    STATES 


1S9 


f 

Fig.  123. 
A  lake  steamer  at  Chicago. 


hides,  however,  must  first  be  sent  to  tanneries.  One  of  the  prin- 
cipal places  for  tanneries  is  Milwaukee,  which  is  supplied  with 
tannic  acid  from  the  bark  of  the  hemlock  tree  that  grows  in  the 
forests  of  Wisconsin. 
Nothing  is  wasted  in  the 
packing  business;  even 
the  bristles  of  the  hog  are 
saved  to  make  brushes; 
and  the  hair  removed  from 
the  hides  of  cattle  is  valu- 
able in  making  plaster. 

Manufacturing  in  Chi- 
cago.—  Being  near  the 
forest  regions,  Chicago  has 
become  a  lumber  market; 
and  iron  ore  is  also  easily 
brought  by  boat.  There- 
fore, the  opportunities  for 
manufacturing  are  excel- 
lent; for,  although  there  is  no  natural  water  power  in  that  vicinity, 
vast  coal  fields  are  not  far  away. 

Other  Facts  about  Chicago.  —  The  sewage  from  the  city  has  heretofore 
been  emptied  into  Lake  Michigan;  but  as  the  drinking  water  must  be 
taken  from  the  lake,  it  became  necessary  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  in  some 
other  way.  For  that  purpose  an  immense  drainage  canal  has  recently 
been  completed  (Fig.  104),  connecting  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Illinois 
Eiver,  and  thus  setting  the  current  toward  the  Mississippi  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  This  drainage  canal,  which  is  wide  and  deep  enough  for 
vessels,  will  undoubtedly  develop  into  a  ship  canal.  In  that  case,  large 
boats  may  reach  Chicago  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  as  they  now  do  from 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.     What  effect  would  this  have  upon  the  city  ? 

One  of  the  chief  educational  institutions  is  the  University  of  Chicago 
(Fig.  124  a),  established  in  1890,  another  is  the  Northwestern  University 
(Fig.  124  b)  at  Evanston,  a  suburb  of  Chica-go.  Mention  some  other  large 
universities. 

Other  Cities  along  the  Lakes.  —  Other  great  cities  along  the  lakes 
are  engaged  in  many  of  the  same  industries  as  Chicago,  and  need 
not  be  so  fully  described.  Milwaukee  (Fig.  105),  the  largest  in 
Wisconsin,  deals  extensively  in  grain,  lumber,  and  leather,  packs 
much  pork,  and  manufactures  a  great  quantity  of  flour  and  machin- 
ery.    Its  immense  breweries  have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  126). 


Fig.  124  a. 
Mitchell  Tower,  University  of  Chicago,  from  Hull  Court,  looking  east. 


'"■^■■■•■■■■^■■■■■■"■^^■i"  ■  i^"r»" 

«*  .S-'v/  '3VW7 

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^^Hp¥V' 

m.  ^   i" 

II 

I^^H 

M 

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I^^Hi 

^^^^r^^ 

^^^^r*     aBii 

^f'^-^Ji; 

i         ^ 

J 

^K 

%'    -    JB^IH 

■ 

^^Ib 

\  -'-^j^H 

mS%  "'1  a 

#4 

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^^H 

^^^^ 

^^^1 

M         ll>^^|Mlfc- 

H 

'•                        ,„-i,.T,.,.„mai3I^^^^^B 

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1  -'i       .'^HlBl^li 

BB 

^^^^ 

#/>.;    J 

r  '^^-H^^^H 

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■ 

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1 

Fig.  124  b. 
University  Hall,  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  111. 


Fig.  125  a. 

Le  Conte  Oaks,"  University  of  Californiao 


Fig.  125  b. 
View  of  Arcade,  Leland  Stanford  University. 


140 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Detroit  (Fig.  105),  the  largest  city  in  Michigan,  is  also  on  the 
Great  Lakes  water  route.  The  name  is  a  French  word  for  strait. 
Why  suitable  here  ?  All  vessels  going  east  or  west  must  pass  this 
city  ;  and  some  of  the  railway  trains  from  eastern  Canada  to  Chi- 
cago and  the  West  are  ferried  across  the  strait  at  this  narrow  point. 
Detroit  is  consequently  a  shipping  and  manufacturing  center,  deal- 
ing in  grain,  wool,  pork,  and  ores  from  the  West,  and  making  iron 
and  steel  goods,  such  as  cars,  stoves,  etc. 

Not  far  away,  at  Ann  Arbor,  is  the  University  of  Michigan,  one  of 
the  largest  educational  institutions  in  the  United  States.  It  is  supported 
by  the  state;  in  fact,  state  universities  are  established  in  most  of  the 
Central,  Southern,  and  Western  States. 

On  the  lake  shore  in  Ohio  the  chief  cities  are  Toledo  and 
Cleveland  (Fig.  105).  The  former  has  extensive  flour  mills  and 
iron  manufactories ;  and  the  latter,  which  is  much  the  larger, 
and  larger  than  either  Cincinnati,  Detroit,  or  Buffalo,  has  an 
important  trade  in  grain,  lumber,  and  ore.  Being  near  the  coal 
and  petroleum  fields,  Cleveland  is  extensively  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing machinery  and  furniture,  in  refining  petroleum,  and  in 
ship  building  for  the  lake  commerce.  It  is  one  of  the  busiest  and 
most  rapidly  growing  of  the  lake  cities. 


THE   RIVER   cities 

Cities  along  the  Mississippi.  —  The    largest  city   on  the  rivers, 
corresponding  to   Chicago  on  the  lakes,  is  St.  Louis  in  Missouri 

(Fig.  104).  It  has  a  very 
favorable  position  in  the 
center  of  the  productive 
Mississippi  Valley.  This, 
together  with  the  fact 
that  it  is  situated  on  the 
Mississippi  near  the  mouth 
of  its  two  largest  tribu- 
taries, secures  for  it  a  large 
amount  of  trade  both  by 
water  and  by  rail.  The 
railway  bridges  across  the 
Mississippi  at  this  point  have  also  had  an  immense  influence  on 
the  growth  of  the  city. 


Fig.  126. 
The  Pillsbury- Washburn  flour  mills  at  Minneapolis. 


CENTS AL    STATEM 


141 


Like  Chicago,  St.  Louis  is  an  important  market  for  grain  and  live 
stock ;  but  being  so  far  south,  it  also  trades  extensively  in  Southern 
products,  especially  cotton  and  tobacco.  This  city  is  also  a  noted 
mule  and  horse  market,  and  a  great  manufacturing  center.  It  manu- 
factures immense  quantities  of  tobacco,  beer,  flour,  boots,  shoes, 
clothing,  and  hardware. 

Formerly  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  were  almost  the  only  noted 
markets  for  grain  and  live  stock  in  the  West;  but  in  later  years 
several  other  cities  have  become  prominent  in  that  section.  Two  of 
these  are  the  "twin  cities,"  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  (Fig.  104). 
The  latter,  the  capital  of  Minnesota,  is  a  trade  center.  From  it  the 
products  of  the  West  are  sent  eastward  and  southward,  while 
farming  implements,  furniture,  clothing,  and  other  articles  are 
distributed  among  the  smaller  towns  of  the  vast  farming  region 
round  about. 

Minneapolis,  only  ten  miles  distant,  is  situated  at  the  Falls  of 
St.  Anthony,  which  furnish  splendid  water  power.     It  is  also  in  the 


Fig.  127. 

Logs  in  the  river  near  Minneapolis.     One  of  the  bridges  across  the  Mississippi  River  at  this 
point  is  seen  in  the  background. 

midst  of  the  wheat  region  ;  and  this,  with  its  water  power,  has  caused 
Minneapolis  to  become  the  leading  flour-producing  center  in  America. 
In  the  city  are  many  grain  elevators  and  flour  mills  (Fig.  126). 

One  of  these  flour  mills,  belonging  to  the  Pillsbury- Washburn  Com- 
pany, is  the  largest  in  the  world.  Steam  shovels  scoop  the  grain  from 
the  trains  very  rapidly,  emptying  a  car  of  750  bushels  in  eighteen  to 
nineteen  minutes.  All  straw,  useless  seeds,  sticks,  etc.,  must  first  be 
separated  from  the  grain,  and  then  it  passes  through  many  different  ma- 
chines before  the  pure  flour  is  produced.     During  this  process  it  must 


142  NORTH   AMERICA 

be  raised  to  the  top  of  the  building  twelve  different  times,  being  carried  up 
by  rapidly  moving  belts  having  many  small  buckets,  or  pockets,  attached. 

In  making  flour  a  thin  covering  called  bran  is  first  removed  from  the 
outside  of  the  kernels.  Between  this  covering  and  the  center  is  the  part 
from  which  the  fine  flour  is  made,  and  the  center  is  the  germ  which  is 
separated  and  used  as  a  breakfast  food.  All  this  is  accomplished  by  machin- 
ery, as  is  the  sacking,  or  barreling,  and  loading  on  the  cars. 

What  have  you  already  learned  about  the  influence  of  St.  Anthony's 
Tails  on  the  lumber  industry  of  Minneapolis? 

Cities  along  the  Missouri. —The  leading  cities  on  the  Missouri 
River  are  Omaha  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas  City  (Fig.  104)  in 
western  Missouri.     Each  is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  farming  country 


Fig.  128. 
Hogs  in  Kansas  being  fattened  for  the  market. 

which  produces  much  grain.  Each  is  also  a  market  for  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses  raised  near  by  and  in  the  semi-arid  region  farther  west. 
Being  so  near  the  ranch  country,  both  of  these  cities  have  a  certain 
advantage  over  St.  Louis  and  Chicago,  and  their  meat-packing  indus- 
try is  gaining  rapidly  each  year.  This  industry  is  most  important 
at  Kansas  City,  Kansas. 

Southwest  of  Omaha  is  Lincoln,  the  capital  of  Nebraska;  and  across 
the  river  in  Iowa  is  Council  Bluffs,  an  important  center  for  farming 
implements.  Several  cities  northwest  of  this  point  are  chiefly  important 
ii.^  trade  centers.  Find  some  of  them  on  the  map.  On  the  river  above 
Kansas  City  is  St.  Joseph  in  Missouri,  and  below  it  is  Jefferson  City, 
tue  capital  of  that  state.     Opposite  is  Kansas  City,  Kansas.     Farther 


CENTRAL    STATES 


148 


*Yest,  in  Kansas,  are  Wichita,  and  Topeka  the  capital.  Since  we  know 
the  products  of  this  section,  it  is  clear  why  most  of  the  larger  cities  are 
centers  for  stock,  grain,  and  flour. 

Cities  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  —  In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  the 
cities  of  the  upper  Ohio  —  Pittsburg,  Allegheny,  and  Wheeling  — 
owe  their  importance  largely  to  coal  and  iron,  and  to  the  fact  that 
river  boats  can  reach  them. 

Farther  down,  Cincinnati  (Fig.  10-4),  the  largest  river  port  in 
the  state  of  Ohio,  is  a  great  manufacturing  center.     Besides  pottery 


FiG.  129. 
River  boats  on  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati. 

(p.  135),  this  city  manufactures  large  quantities  of  iron,  machinery, 
and  clothing.  Columbus,  the  capital,  is  an  important  trade  center, 
and  manufactures  carriages,  wagons,  and  other  articles.  The  reasons 
why  this  city  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  carriages  and  farm 
machinery  are,  first,  the  presence  of  the  necessary  raw  materials, 
such  as  iron  ore,  coal,  and  hard  wood  ;  and,  secondly,  the  many 
farms  upon  which  these  articles  are  needed. 

Farther  down  the  river  is  Louisville,  the  largest  city  in  Ken- 
tucky.    There  are  rapids  in  the  Ohio  at  this  point,  and  a  canal  leads 


144  irOSTH   AMERICA 

around  them.  Besides  being  a  center  for  tobacco,  like  Richmond 
and  St.  Louis,  Louisville  manufactures  iron  goods,  farming  imple- 
ments, flour,  and  leather  goods.     It  is  also  a  railway  center. 

Eyansville,  the  largest  river  port  in  Indiana,  is  principally 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  flour,  machinery,  and  leather  goods. 
Indianapolis,  the  capital  and  metropolis  of  Indiana,  is  in  the  midst 
of  a  splendid  farming  district.  It  is  a  railway  and  trade  center  like 
Columbus,  and  handles  much  grain,  lumber,  and  furniture. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Review  Questions  and  Topics.  —  (1)  Describe  the  physiography: — the 
plains ;  the  mountains ;  the  prairies  ;  the  soil.  (2)  What  about  the  climate  of  the 
section  ?  (3)  Tell  about  the  settlement  of  the  Mississippi  Valley :  —  first  pioneers ; 
use  of  the  rivers ;  steamboats ;  canals  and  railways ;  rapid  settlement  in  later  years  ; 
population.  (4)  Describe  the  farm  in  Ohio  :  —  its  size  :  the  buildings  ;  the  prod- 
ucts ;  life  on  the  farm.  Would  you  care  to  live  there  ?  Why  ?  (5)  What  fruits 
are  raised,  and  where?  (6)  Where  is  tobacco  raised,  and  what  cities  are  engaged 
in  its  manufacture?  (7)  What  kinds  of  stock  are  raised  in  Kentucky?  What  is 
the  reason  for  their  fine  grade  ?  (8)  Describe  the  Mammoth  Cave.  (9)  Tell  about 
corn  :  —  the  planting ;  the  care  of  the  field ;  uses  of  corn ;  cities  which  handle  the 
corn.  (10)  Where  is  wheat  raised  ?  (11)  Describe  the  Red  River  valley  of  the 
North.  (12)  Tell  about  wheat  raising  on  the  Dalrymple  farm.  (13)  What  cities 
have  been  influenced  by  this  wheat  region  ?  (14)  What  other  grains  are  raised  ? 
For  what  are  they  used  ?  In  what  cities  ?  (1.5)  Describe  cattle  ranching :  —  where 
carried  on  ;  reason  ;  the  cattle  ranch ;  wandering  of  the  cattle  ;  object  and  nature 
of  the  spring  round-up ;  of  the  beef  round-up ;  what  is  done  with  the  cattle ;  the 
life  of  the  cowboys.  (16)  Where  are  the  forests?  (17)  What  kinds  of  trees  are 
found?  (18)  How  is  the  lumbering  carried  on?  (19)  What  cities  are  engaged 
in  lumbering  ?  In  the  manufacture  of  articles  from  wood  ?  (20)  What  is  the 
origin  of  the  building  stones ?  What  kinds  are  found  ?  Where?  (21)  Where 
are  oil  and  gas  obtained?  Of  what  use  are  they?  (22)  Where  is  coal  found? 
To  what  uses  put  ?  (23)  Tell  about  the  iron  mining  :  —  its  development ;  nature 
of  the  ore ;  where  sent ;  reason ;  manner  of  loading  the  vessels ;  cities  sent  from 
and  shipped  to ;  states  producing  it.  (24)  Study  about  copper  :  —  where  found ; 
how  found ;  mining ;  obtaining  the  metal  from  the  ore ;  towns  near  the  mines ; 
uses  of  copper.  (25)  What  other  minerals  are  obtained?  Where?  (26)  What 
clay  products  are  manufactured?  (27)  Where  is  Rookwood  ware  made  ?  How? 
(28)  Where  are  the  principal  cities  to  be  looked  for?  Why?  (29)  What  cities 
at  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior  ?  For  what  are  they  important  ?  (30)  Give 
the  reasons  for  the  location  of  Chicago  and  its  wonderful  growth.  (31)  Describe 
meat  packing  in  Chicago.  (32)  To  what  uses  are  the  various  products  put? 
(33)  What  manufacturing  is  carried  on  in  Chicago?  Why?  (34)  State  some 
other  facts  about  Chicago.  (35)  Briefly  enumerate  the  important  facts  about  Chi- 
cago. (36)  What  other  Great  Lake  cities  are  there?  For  what  is  each  impor- 
tant? (37)  Name  the  cities  along  the  Mississippi  River,  and  tell  for  what  each  is 
important.  (38)  Describe  flour  milling.  (39)  Name  the  cities  along  the  Missouri. 
For  what  is  each  important  ?    (40)   Do  the  same  for  the  Ohio  valley. 


OJDNTEAL   MTATMB  146 

RiviEW  BY  States:  Ohio(0.). —  (1)  Name  the  four  largest  cities.  (Appen- 
dix, pp.  iv-vi.)  Where  is  each  located  ?  Why  there  ?  (2)  What  other  cities  of 
Ohio  are  mentioned?  For  what  is  each  important?  (3)  Why  is  there  much 
manufacturing  in  this  state  ?  (4)  What  other  industries  are  mentioned  in  the 
text?  '  5)  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  209  to  216)  in  order  to  see  what  crops  are 
raised  in  Ohio.  (6)  In  what  ways  are  the  oities  of  Ohio  dependent  upon  New 
Orleans  and  New  York?  How  are  the  latter  cities  dependent  upon  those  in 
Ohio?  (7)  Of  what  service  to  Cleveland  and  Toledo  is  the  Erie  Canal? 
(8)  Draw  a  sketch  map  of  Ohio  like  that  of  Maine  (p.  65).  As  you  study  each 
state  do  the  same. 

Indiana  (Ind.).  —  (9)  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  209  to  216)  to  see  what  crops 
are  produced  in  Indiana.  (10)  Which  is  the  largest  city?  For  what  noted? 
(11)  What  other  cities  were  mentioned?  (12)  What  are  the  industries  of 
Indiana?  (13)  Examine  the  relief  map  to  see  if  the  relief  seems  favorable  to 
farming.  What  other  Central  States  resemble  this  in  relief?  (14)  Of  what  im- 
portance was  the  fact  that  so  large  a  part  of  this  section  was  treeless  when  dis- 
covered ? 

Kentucky  (Ky.).  —  (15)  Why  should  this  state  be  better  adapted  to  tobacco 
raising  than  Ohio?  (16)  Of  what  importance  is  the  limestone  of  Kentucky? 
(17)  Where  are  most  of  the  cities  ?  Why  there  ?  (18)  What  products  are  men- 
tioned from  Kentucky  ?  (19)  Which  is  the  largest  city  ?  For  what  important  ? 
(20)   What  other  cities  are  mentioned  ? 

Illinois  (111.).  —  (21)  What  industries  are  mentioned  from  this  state  ?  (22)  Ex- 
amine the  maps  (Figs.  209  to  216)  to  see  what  crops  are  raised.  (23)  Why  is  there 
much  manufacturing  in  Illinois?  What  kinds  are  carried  on  ?  (24)  Of  what  value 
is  the  lake  to  manufacturing?  (25)  State  the  reasons  why  Chicago  has  developed 
so  greatly.  (26)  What  other  cities  are  mentioned  in  this  state?  For  what  is  each 
important?  (27)  In  the  Appendix  (pp.  iv-vii)  find  the  population  of  the  three 
largest  cities  of  each  of  the  four  states  so  far  reviewed,  and  compare  them. 
(28)  Which  of  these  four  states  is  the  largest  ?   Which  smallest  ?    (Appendix,  p.  iii.) 

Michigan  (Mich.).  —  (29)  What  lakes  does  this  state  border?  Of  what  advan- 
tage is  this?  (30)  What  disadvantage  can  you  see  in  the  fact  that  water  separates 
the  lower  from  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan?  (31).  Ice  stops  lake  traffic  in 
winter.  What  effect  must  this  have?  (32)  Into  what  waters  does  this  state 
drain?  Contrast  this  with  the  other  states.  (33)  Where  are  most  of  the  large 
cities  ?  Why  there  ?  (34)  For  what  is  each  important  ?  (35)  Give  the  reasons 
for  the  location  of  Detroit.     (36)    What  are  the  important  products  of  Michigan? 

Wisconsin  (Wis.).  —  (37)  Which  is  the  largest  city  in  this  state?  For  what 
important  ?  (38)  What  other  cities  are  mentioned  in  the  text  ?  What  is  done  in 
each  ?  (39)  Compare  Wisconsin  with  Michigan  in  relief ;  in  industries ;  in  min- 
eral products ;  in  crops ;  in  the  size  of  cities.  (40)  What  effect  must  the  lakes 
have  upon  the  climate?  Would  this  influence  be  greater  or  less  than  in  Michigan  ? 
Why?  (41)  If  there  were  coal  beds  in  northern  Wisconsin,  what  effect  might  it 
have  upon  Chicago,  Cleveland,  and  the  coal  mining  of  Pennsylvania? 

Minnesota  (Minn.).  —  (42)  Where  does  the  Mississippi  River  rise  ?  (43)  What 
oceans  receive  the  waters  that  fall  upon  Minnesota?  I'hrough  what  rivers? 
(44)  What  industries  are  carried  on  in  this  state ?  (45)  What  crops  are  raised? 
(46)  Nan)e  the  three  largest  cities,  and  tell  why  each  is  important.  (47)  How 
does  the  largest  compare  with  Boston?    With  Cincinnati? 

Iowa  (la,).  —  (48)  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  209  to  216)  to  see  what  crops 
art  raised  in  this  state.     (49)   What  other  impoitant  industries  are  carried  on ? 


146  NOBTH    AMEBICA 

(50)  Name  the  largest  cities.  For  what  are  they  noted?  (61)  Much  corn  is 
raised  here ;  what  must  be  done  with  it  ? 

Missouri  (Mo.).  —  (52)  Examine  Figures  209  to  216  to  see  how  the  crops  of 
Missouri  differ  from  those  of  Minnesota.  Why  is  there  this  difference  ?  (53)  Why 
are  so  few  towns  found  in  the  southwestern  part?  (54)  Name  and  locate  the  two 
largest  cities.  For  what  is  each  important?  (55)  What  other  cities  are  men- 
tioned? (56)  Find  the  population  of  St.  Louis;  compare  it  with  New  York, 
Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston.     (57)    Give  reasons  for  its  great  size. 

Kansas  (Kan.).  —  (58)  Why  are  the  cities  in  the  eastern  part?  (59)  What 
are  the  industries  of  the  west?  Why?  (60)  What  crops  are  raised  in  Kansas? 
(Figs.  212  to  218.)     (61)    Name  the  principal  cities.     For  what  is  each  noted? 

Nebraska  (Neb.).  —  (62)  How  do  the  industries  of  Nebraska  compare  with 
those  of  Kansas?  Why?  (63)  How  are  these  states  alike  in  regard  to  location  of 
cities?  (64)  What  cities  in  Nebraska  are  mentioned?  (65)  For  what  is  On)aha 
noted?    Why  may  we  expect  it  to  increase  in  importance  in  this  respect? 

North  and  South  Dakota  (N.D.  and  S.D.).  —  (66)  These  two  states  were 
formerly  the  territory  of  Dakota.  What  reason  can  you  see  for  making  two  states 
out  of  the  one  territory  ?  (67)  ^ow  do  the  industries  of  the  two  states  compare 
with  those  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas?  (68)  Look  at  the  corn  and  wheat  maps 
(Figs.  209  and  211)  to  see  where  most  wheat  and  corn  are  produced^  Is  North 
Dakota  more  or  less  important  than  Kansas  as  a  corn-producing  state?  Answer 
the  same  for  wheat.  Tell  why  this  is  so.  (69)  Of  what  advantage  would  it  be  to 
Fargo  if  a  deep  river  extended  from  that  city  to  Duluth  ?  (70)  What  do  the  Black 
Hills  contribute  to  the  wealth  of  South  Dakota? 

General.  —  (71)  Which  state  is  the  largest  in  this  group?  (Appendix,  p.  iii.) 
Which  smallest?     Compare  each  of  these  with  Mass.,  R.L,  N.Y.,  N.C.,  and  Tex, 

(72)  Wliich  of  the  Central  States  has  the  most  inhabitants  ?  (Appendix,  p.  iii.) 
Which  the  fewest?     Compare  each  of  these  with  Mass.,  R.L,  N.Y.,  N.C.,  and  Tex. 

(73)  Find  the  ten  largest  cities.  (Appendix,  pp.  iv-vi.)  How  does  their  popula- 
tion compare  with  that  of  the  ten  largest  in  the  other  groups  of  states  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  W^rite  a  brief  description  of  the  Western  prairies. 
(2)  Find  how  much  earlier  in  the  fall  frosts  come  in  Minneapolis  than  in  Mem- 
phis. (3)  Mention  several  advantages  of  farm  life  over  city  life.  (4)  How  do 
farms  that  you  have  seen  diifer  from  the  Ohio  farm  described  in  the  text? 
(5)  Find  other  uses  of  corn  besides  those  mentioned.  (6)  How  does  the  wind 
often  help  ranch  cattle  to  obtain  food  in  winter?  (7)  What  are  some  of  the  ad- 
ventures that  cowboys  experience  ?  (8)  Why  are  coal  anu  brick  especially  valuable 
in  a  prairie  country?  (9)  Examine  a  brickyard,  and  write  a  description  of  brick 
making.  (10)  See  how  long  a  list  you  can  make  of  articles  manufactured  partly 
or  wholly  out  of  copper.  (11)  Do  the  same  in  regard  to  lead.  (12)  How  are 
the  advantages  of  the  location  of  Chicago  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Atlanta? 
(13)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  great  water  route  from  Duluth  to  New  York  City, 
and  put  in  the  leading  cities.  What  states  border  on  this  route?  (14)  Make 
a  drawing  of  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  Ohio  rivers,  and  include  the  leading 
cities.  What  states  do  these  rivers  border  or  pass  through  ?  (15)  State  clearly 
the  advantages  of  these  waterways.  (16)  Make  a  sketch  map  of  the  Central 
States,  including  the  principal  lakes,  rivers,  and  cities. 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


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Map  to  show  the  location  of  San  Francisco,  Portland,  Tacoma,  and  Seattle. 


IX.     THE  WESTERN  STATES 

Early  Settlements.  —  While  the  pioneers  were  settling  the  prai- 
ries of  the  Central  States,  almost  nothing  was  known  about  the  Far 
West.  The  Spanish  had  taken  possession  of  the  southern  portion, 
and  many  of  their  names  are  still  retained,  as  New  Mexico,  Los 
Angeles,  and  San  Francisco.     In   1848  gold  was  discovered  in  the 


Fig.  133. 
Santa  Barbara  Mission,  Southern  California.    Still  used  as  a  place  of  worship. 


stream  gravels  of  California,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  persons 
left  farms,  factories,  and  homes  in  a  mad  rush  for  the  gold  fields. 
Some  sailed  all  the  way  around  South  America ;  others  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama;  but  many  traveled  overland,  running  the  risk 
of  attack  from  Indians  and  of  death  from  thirst.  There  were  then  no 
railways  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  journey  was  long  and  tedious. 


148 


NORTH   AMERICA 


For  ages  the  rocks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  had  been  crumbling 
and  washing  away,  but  the  gold  which  they  contained  lodged  in  the  hollows 
and  crevices  of  the  rocky  beds  of  the  streams. 

It  was  this  gold  that  the  early  gold  hunters,  or  prospectors,  were 
seeking,  and  they  obtained  it  in  a  very  simple  manner.  Placing  some  of 
the  stream  gravel  in  a  pan  of  water,  they  rocked  it  back  and  forth  in 


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Fig.  134. 
A  railway  winding  about  as  it  crosses  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  heavier  particles  of  gold  to  separate  from  the 
gravel,  while  the  lighter  minerals  were  washed  away.  The  prospectors 
were  sometimes  rewarded  by  finding  large  lumps  of  gold,  called  nuggetSy 
worth  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  dollars. 

The  discovery  of  gold  quickly  drew  so  many  persons  to  Califor- 
nia that  the  territory  was  able  to  enter  the  Union  as  a  state  in  1850 ; 
and,  as  the  search  for  the  precious  metal  was  carried  farther  and 
farther,  the  West  soon  became  explored  and  settled.  Railways  were 
built  across  the  mountains  (Fig.  134),  and  many  industries,  such  as 
farming,  lumbering,  and  ranching,  have  followed  mining.  Indeed, 
in  many  sections  these  industries  are  now  much  more  important  than 
even  gold  and  silver  mining. 


THE    WESTERN    STATEB 


14& 


Physiography.  —  The  Western  States  are  made  up  largely  of  pla- 
teaus and  mountains.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  more  than 
a  mile  above  sea  level, 
while  some  mountain 
peaks  are  two  and  three 
miles  in  height. 

The  extreme  eastern 
portion  is  a  continuation 
of  the  Great  Plains  (p. 
126),  which  reach  to  the 
very  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  These  moun- 
tains extend  entirely 
across  the  country 
into  Mexico  on  the  south  and  Canada  on  the  north.  They  are 
made  up  of  a  large  number  of  ranges  and  ridges,  which  attain  their 


Fig.  135. 
Mt.  Hood,  Oregon. 


greatest  height   in  Colorado.       A 


Fig.  J. 
Mt.  Rainier,  Washington. 


long  distance  farther  west,  and 
almost  parallel  with  the  Rockies, 
is  another  system  of  mountains, 
called  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains in  California  and  the  Cas- 
cade Ranges  in  Oregon  and 
Washington.  Still  farther  west, 
and  close  to  the  coast,  is  a  third 
series,  known  as  the  Coast 
Ranges,  which  in  places  rise 
directly  out  of  the  ocean. 

Just  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  a  plateau,  dotted 
with  numerous  mountain  peaks 
and  small  ridges.  It  is  higher 
at  the  two  ends  than  in  the 
middle,  and  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts  (Fig.  43)  :  (1)  the 
great  Columbia  plateau  of  Idaho, 
Oregon,  and  Washington  on  the 
north ;  (2)  the  Colorado  plateau 
of  Arizona  and  Utah  on  the 
south;  and  (3)  the  Great  Basin 
of   Utah   and   Nevada  between 


160  NORTH   AMERICA 

the  two.     The  numerous  short  north  and  south  mountain  ranges 
in  the  Great  Basin  are  called  the  Basin  Ranges. 

Between  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  system  and  the  Coast  Ranges  there 
is  an  area  of  lowland  (Fig.  43).  In  California  and  Oregon  this  forms 
fertile  valleys ;  in  Washington  it  is  occupied  by  Paget  Sound. 

Throughout  most  of  this  Western  country  evidences  of  volcanic  action 
abound  (p.  5).  Some  of  the  loftiest  peaks  are  extinct  volcanoes,  as  Mt. 
Rainier  (Fig.  J),  within  sight  of  Tacoma,  Washington ;  Mt.  Hood  (Fig. 
135),  not  far  from  Portland,  Oregon ;  and  Mt.  Shasta  (Fig.  6),  in  north- 
ern California. 

The  influence  of  lava  on  the  West  is  marked.  For  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  square  miles  it  forms  the  rock  of  the  country,  and  its  decay  has 
produced  a  soil  which  is  very  fertile.  It  covers  the  plateaus,  especially 
in  the  north,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  peculiar  scenery  of 
the  West. 

Climate.  —  Unlike  the  East,  where  the  climate  is  very  uniform 
over  large  sections,  the  West  is  a  region  of  contrasts,  with  a  great 
variety  of  climate  from  place  to  place.  The  most  general  fact  about 
the  climate  of  this  vast  Western  region  is  its  aridity.  Large  areas 
of  country  are  so  dry  that  no  agriculture  is  possible  without  irrigation. 
Only  among  the  high  plateaus  and  mountains,  and  in  Washington, 
western  Oregon,  and  the  greater  part  of  California,  is  there  rainfall 
enough  for  forests  or  for  farming.  Thus,  almost  one  fifth  of  the 
entire  continent  is  a  partial  or  complete  desert. 

Along  the  northwestern  coast  the  damp  west  winds  bring  so 
much  vapor  that  the  rainfall  is  heavy.  Indeed,  near  the  coast  of 
Washington  there  is  a  rainfall  greater  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
United  States,  the  heaviest  rain  coming  in  winter.  But  being 
robbed  of  its  vapor  in  crossing  the  mountains,  the  air  descends  on 
the  eastern  side  so  dry  that  agriculture  is  possible  in  only  a  few 
sections,  as  in  the  high  mountain  valleys  and  in  the  wheat  district 
of  central  and  eastern  Washington  and  Oregon. 

Parts  of  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  California  are  true  deserts, 
and  portions  of  each  of  the  other  states  approach  it.  Near  the  north- 
ern shores  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  for  example,  not  a  tree  nor  even  a  shrub 
is  to  be  seen  for  many  miles.  The  entire  surface  is  covered  by  a 
glistening  whitish  substance  called  alkali.  In  other  regions  dreary 
wastes  extend  hundreds  of  miles,  interrupted  only  by  cacti  and  other 
arid  land  plants,  by  rocky  ledges,  and  by  occasional  mountain  peaks. 

The  lack  of  water  is  shown  on  the  map  by  the  scarcity  of  streams 
in  and  near  Nevada.     That  section  is  a  real  basin,  having  a   ria. 


THE    WESTERN    STATES 


151 


which  prevents  the  water  from  flowing  out,  and  is  called  the  Great 
Basin  (Fig.  43).  Its  few  streams  either  flow  into  shallow  salt  lakes, 
which  are  growing  more  and  more  salt  as  the  years  pass,  or  they  dry 
up  and  disappear  in  the  sand. 

That  much  rain  falls  on  the  cool  mountains  and  plateaus  of  the 
West  is  shown  by  the  numerous  large  rivers  which  have  their  sources 
there.  Name  and  locate  those  flowing  from  the  Rocky  Mountains 
into  the  Mississippi.  Trace  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  rivers  that 
empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Although  long,  these  rivers  are  not 
navigable,  partly  because  of  the  steep  slopes,  and  partly  because  of 
the  lack  of  water.  Indeed,  during  the  dry  summer  season,  many,  like 
the  Rio  Grande,  almost  disappear  in  the  middle  part  of  their  course. 

The  importance  of  even  the  higher  plateaus  in  condensing  the  vapor 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  highlands  of  Central  Arizona.  A  person  travel- 
ing eastward  from  Los  Angeles,  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
Railway,  upon  reaching  the  Colorado  River  in  the  evening,  finds  himself 
in  the  midst  of  a  desert  about  500  feet  above  sea  level.  If  it  is  summer, 
the  thermometer  may  register  from  110°  to  120°  in  the  shade,  for  this  is  the 


Fig.  136. 
Hydraulic  mining,  Siskiyou  County,  California, 


-A« 


152  irOBTH   AMEBIOA 

hottest  region  in  the  United  States,  hotter  than  many  parts  of  the  torrid 
zone.  After  leaving  the  river,  the  train  ascends  the  Colorado  plateau, 
7000  feet  high,  and  the  next  morning  the  traveler  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
forest,  while  the  almost  unbearable  heat  of  the  previous  day  is  replaced 
by  a  delightfully  cool  air.  As  if  by  magic  the  scene  is  changed,  simply 
because,  on  the  elevated  plateau,  the  air  is  cooler  and  the  vapor  can 
therefore  be  condensed  into  rain. 

Mineral  Products.  —  As  we  have  already  seen,  mining  was  the 
first  industry  to  attract  large  numbers  of  pioneers  to  the  Far  West. 
Every  one  of  the  Western  Sta,tes  contains  mineral  deposits  of  some 


Fig.  137. 
Mine  and  mill,  Goldfield,  Nevada. 

kind,  as  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  mercury,  and  coal.  This  region  is 
now  the  most  important  mining  district  in  the  world. 

Much  of  the  land  is  still  owned  by  the  government,  and  all  ore 
that  is  discovered  upon  it  belongs  to  the  finder.  Any  citizen  of  the 
United  States  may  become  the  owner  of  a  valuable  mine,  if  he  can 
find  one  on  government  land.  Consequently,  hundreds  of  pros- 
pectors are  digging  into  the  earth  wherever  there  are  indications 
of  ore.  In  most  cases  they  are  doomed  to  disappointment,  but 
they  keep  trying,  moving  from  place  to  place.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, valuable  ore  is  found,  and  then  the  poor  prospectors  become 
suddenly  rich. 

Much  gold  has  been  discovered  in  the  gravels  of  stream  beds 
where  water  no  longer  flows.  In  many  places  these  dry  beds  are 
near  the  surface,  so  that  mining  is  easy;  in  others,  they  have  been 


THE   WESTERN    STATE8  153 

covered  up  with  a  thick  blanket  of  hard  lava,  beneath  which  the 
miners  are  obliged  to  tunnel  in  order  to  follow  them. 

Very  early  the  miners  became  dissatisfied  with  the  slow  "pan- 
ning" of  the  gold,  as  washing  the  gravel  in  pans  was  called 
(p.  148).  They  then  adopted  the  far  more  speedy  plan  of  hydraulic 
mining  (J^^ig-  136). 

This  method  of  mining  within  the  basin  of  all  navigable  streams  of 
the  state  is  now  prohibited  by  law  because  the  gravel  and  silt  were  washed 
into  the  rivers  and  made  them  too  shallow  for  navigation,  and  during  high 
water  caused  the  rivers  to  leave  their  banks  and  overflow  thousands  of 
acres  of  land. 

Another  method  of  mining  gold,  and  the  one  by  which  most  of 
that  metal  is  now  obtained,  is  to  dig  into  the  solid  rock.  The  shafts 
and  tunnels  follow  the  veins  from  which  the  gold  in  the  gravels 
originally  came.  The  metal  is  found  in  rock  mixed  with  other 
minerals  which  are  of  little  or  no  value;  but  the  gold  sometimes 
occurs  in  such  small  grains  that  one  may  spend  days  in  a  mine  with- 
out seeing  any. 

To  secure  the  gold,  the  ore  is  put  through  a  stamp  mill  (Fig.  138). 
The  ore  is  dumped  into  a  rock  breaker,  where  it  is  broken  into  bits 
about  the  size  of  hens'  eggs,  dropping  into  bins  to  which  are  attached 
self-feeders  which  feed  the  ore  to  the  batteries  containing  the 
heavy  stamps. 

An  abundance  of  water  and  a  certain  amount  of  quicksilver  is 
put  into  the  batteries  with  the  ore.  The  ore  is  ground  to  fine 
powder  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water  and  quicksilver  and 
passed  through  a  fine  screen  on  to  amalgamated  plates  over  which  it 
passes,  and  finally  through  the  concentrates  to  collect  the  fine  gold. 
At  certain  times  the  stamps  are  stopped  and  a  "  clean  up  "  is  made. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  mining  districts  in  the  world  was  that  of 
the  Comstock  Lode  at  Virginia  City,  Nevada.  So  many  people  moved 
there  then  that  Nevada  territory  became  a  state  in  1864 ;  and  Virginia 
City,  though  in  the  midst  of  the  desert,  grew  to  be  a  thriving  city. 

Partly  because  of  the  difiiculty  of  mining,  and  partly  because  of  the 
failure  to  discover  new  bonanzas,  some  of  the  mines  were  abandoned  and 
people  drifted  away,  so  that  the  population  of  Nevada  decreased,  but  with 
the  discovery  of  new  mining  fields,  new  towns  have  sprung  up,  and  Nevada 
is  again  the  center  of  great  activity,  with  a  rapidly  increasing  popu- 
lation. Tonopah,  Goldfield,  Rawhide,  and  Bullfrog  are  important  new 
mining  towns. 


154 


NOBTH   AMERICA 


At  the  present  time  Colorado  produces  more  gold  and  silver 
than  any  other  state  (Figs.  225  and  226),  and  much  copper,  lead, 
iron,  and  coal,  besides.  Among  the  mountains,  one  sees  mines 
almost  everywhere;  one  of  the  most  noted  mining  districts  is 
near  Leadville,  a  city  at  an  elevation  of  over  10,000  feet  above 


Fig.  138. 
Forty  Stamp  Mill,  Nevada  County,  California. 

sea  level.  Another  well-known  mining  camp  in  Colorado  is  Crip- 
ple Creek.  A  few  years  ago  no  town  existed  there,  and  the  ore, 
which  has  now  become  so  valuable,  was  not  recognized  as  ore  by  the 
prospectors. 

After  the  ore  is  taken  from  the  mines  it  must  be  crushed,  the  worth- 
less parts  must  be  washed  out,  and  the  remainder  sent  to  the  smelters, 
where  the  metal  is  obtained  by  a  complicated  process. 

The  western  half  of  Montana  is  another  great  mining  section. 
Helena  has  been  a  noted  mining  center,  but  no  portion  of 
the  state  is  now  so  important  for  mining  as  Butte.  There  the 
principal  metal  is  copper,  although  some  gold  and  silver  are  mixed 


THE   WESTERN    STATES 


166 


with  the  ore.  More  copper  is  produced  at  Butte  than  in  any  other 
mining  district  in  the  world.  The  mines  are  very  extensive, 
reaching  several  thousand  feet  into  the  earth  and  having  miles 
of  tunnels,  through  which  one  might  wander  for  days  without  find- 
ing his  way  out. 

Much  of  the  ore  is  crushed  and  reduced  in  smelters  within  the 
city  limits.  In  the  process,  fumes  of  sulphur  pour  forth  from  the 
tall  chimneys  and  settle  to  the  ground,  killing  almost  all  vegetation, 
and  causing  the  city  and  its  immediate  surroundings  to  present  a 
barren,  desolate  appearance. 

As  in  Colorado  and  Montana,  the  principal  industry  in  Arizona  is  min- 
ing, much  copper,  silver,  lead,  and  gold  being  produced.  One  of  the  largest 
cities  in  the  territory  is  Tucson,  which,  together  with  the  others,  is  mainly 
engaged  in  business  connected  with  mining.  There  is  also  much  mining, 
especially  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  in  each  of  the  other  Western  States, 
especially  in  Idaho,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico. 

Iron  is  found  in  several  of  the  states,  but  it  is  not  mined  to  any  extent 
except  west  of  Pueblo,  in  Colorado.  Coal,  usually  of  poor  quality,  also 
occurs  in  many  sections ;  but  a  very  good  grade  of  coal  is  produced  in 
Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  in  the  state  of  Washington. 

Lumbering.  —  The  mining  industry  requires  vast  quantities  of 
lumber  for  timbering.  The  Butte  mines  alone  consume  millions 
of  feet  per  year.  In  the  mines  heavy  timbers  are  placed  upright 
and  close  together  on 
each  side  of  a  tunnel, 
with  crosspieces  over- 
head, to  prevent  the 
rock  from  caving  in. 
Because  of  the  great 
pressure  upon  them, 
timbers  more  than  a 
foot  in  diameter  are 
often  broken. 

While  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  country 
is  arid,  the  mountains 
and  some  of  the  higher 
plateaus  are  forested. 

Thus    the    mines.  Fig.  139. 

which   are   usually  Chopping  down  a  tree  in  Humboldt  County,  CaUfomia. 


156 


NORTH   AMEBIGA 


among  the  high  mountains,  are  generally  supplied  without  difficulty, 
for  the  logs  are  easily  brought  to  them. 

In  the  damp,  equable  climate  near  the  northwestern  coast,  are 
forests  of  giant  redwood,  fir,  cedar,  and  spruce  trees  which  grow  to 
a  greater  size  than  any  other  trees  in  the  world  (Fig.  140).     While 


Fig.  140. 

Great  logs  being  removed  from  the  forest  in  Humboldt  County,  California.    A  donkey 
engine  is  used  to  draw  the  logs  to  the  railway. 


the  logs  in  Maine  and  Michigan  are  rarely  more  than  two  or 
three  feet  in  diameter,  many  in  Washington  and  Oregon  are  from 
six  to  ten  feet  through,  and  some  in  California  are  very  much 
larger. 

A  visit  to  a  lumbering  camp  near  Tacoma  will  show  that,  owing  to 
the  size  of  the  trees,  and  to  the  climate,  the  work  is  carried  on  very  differ- 
ently from  lumbering  in  Maine  (p.  51).  The  men  are  able  to  work  both 
winter  and  summer.  Some  trees  tower  upward  for  two  hundred  feet,  — 
that  is  higher  than  most  church  steeples,  —  and  contain  as  much  as 
fifteen  thousand  feet  of  lumber,  or  enough,  when  sawed  into  boards,  to 
build  a  small  house. 

After  the  branches  are  removed,  the  tree  is  sawed  into  logs  of  different 
lengths,  as  twenty-four,  thirty-two,  forty -eight  feet,  and  these  are  dragged 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  several  miles  away.  There  they  are  piled 
upon  flat  cars  and  taken  to  the  mills  (Fig.  143),  a  single  section  sometimes 


THE   WESTERN    STATES 


167 


occupying  an  entire  car.  Many  go  to  Tacoma  and  Seattle,  where  there 
are  enormous  sawmills.  Since  there  is  so  much  lumber,  many  of  the  streets 
of  Tacoma,  and  other  places  in  this  region,  are  paved  with  thick  planks 
instead  of  stone  or  asphalt. 

Agriculture.  —  Farming  is  carried  on  extensively  in  the  well- 
watered  section  of  the  Northwest  (Fig.  141).  This  is  a  wheat- 
producing  country  like  the  Red  River  valley.  Barley  is  another 
common  grain  and  much  hay  is  also  raised.  During  harvest  season 
the  air  is  so  dry  that  both  hay  and  grain  may  be  left  out  for  weeks 
with  little  danger  of  being  spoiled  by  rain. 

Great  quantities  of  fruit  are  also  raised  in  this  region.  In  the 
north  apples,  pears,  and  peaches  are  produced;  but  in  the  south, 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  great  valley  of  California,  in 


■■■ 

^HK-.'  ^  ~w^ 

'  -  ./>'^^-i^^^^-- 

l^H 

■^^^'^ 

Fig.  141. 

Harvesting  wheat  in  the  great  wheat  fields  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington.    By  this 
machine,  drawn  by  many  mules,  the  wheat  is  cut  and  the  seed  removed  at  the  same  time. 


addition  to  the  hardier  fruits,  are  groves  of  oranges,  lemons,  olives, 
and  figs,  as  well  as  other  trees  which  grow  only  in  warm  climates. 
Stockton  and  Sacramento  are  the  leading  cities  of  the  great  valley. 

Farming  is  possible  in  some  other  parts  of  the  West  by  means  of 
irrigation.  The  influence  of  irrigation  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
region  near  Denver,  which  is  crossed  by  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Platte  River,  from  which  a  ditch  as  large  as  a  canal  is  led  out 
upon  the  plain. 

Smaller  branches  are  led  off  from  the  main  ditch,  and  each  of 
these  is  divided  and  subdivided  to  supply  farms  along  its  course. 


158 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Fig.  142. 
Sweetwater  Dam  near  San  Diego,  California. 


When  a  field  needs  water,  the  ditch  is  tapped  and  the  field  flooded, 
or  else  the  water  is  led  into  little  furrows  a  few  feet  apart.  The 
method  of  irrigation  depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop  that  is  under  cul- 
tivation.    As  there  is  danger  that  the  supply  of  water  may  not  last 


Fig.  143. 
Train  load  of  logs  at  Sawmill. 


THE  WESTERN  STATES 


169 


through  the  summer,  reservoirs  (Fig.  142)  are  built  to  store  the  water 
furnished  by  the  spring  freshets  ;  and  when  needed,  this  is  allowed 
to  flow  into  the  ditch. 

Of  course  such  an  arrangement  is  expensive,  and  each  farmer 
must  pay  for  his  water  at  a  certain  rate,  as  each  house  in  a  city 
pays  for  its  water  or  gas. 

Irrigation  has  had  a  great  influence  on  the  settlement  of  the  West. 
Without  it  Denver  and  Pueblo  would  not  be  the  cities  they  are ; 
and,  because  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  obtaining 
food,  scores  of  mining 
towns  would  not  be  in 
existence. 

Wherever  the 
waters  of  the  rivers  are 
led  out  over  the  fields, 
people  form  settle- 
ments and  often  small 
cities.  That  is  the 
case  at  Greeley,  in 
Colorado,  Cheyenne 
and  Laramie,  the 
principal  cities  in  Wy- 
oming, and  numerous 
other  places. 

The  Mormons,  a  re- 
ligious sect,  under  the 
leadership  of  Brigham 
Young,  migrated  into  the 
then  unknown  West  and 
settled  a  few  miles  from 
Great  Salt  Lake.  There 
they  commenced  to 
build  Salt  Lake  City,  which  is  now  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in 
the  country.  They  also  began  to  raise  crops  by  irrigation,  to  plant  fruit 
trees,  and  to  convert  portions  of  the  desert  waste  into  beautiful  gardens. 

There  are  now  many  "gentiles,"  as  those  among  them  who  do  not 
accept  Mormonism  are  called;  and  agriculture  is  no  longer  the  sole 
industry,  for  many  rich  mines,  especially  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
have  been  opened.  There  are  numerous  busy  towns  and  cities,  the 
largest,  aside  from  the  capital,  Salt  Lake  City,  being  Ogden,  which  lies 
north  of  the  capital. 


Fia.  144. 
Oranges  and  blossoms,  near  Los  Angeles. 


160  NOBTH   AMERICA 

California  is  a  third  section  noted  for  its  extensive  irrigation. 
The  rain  comes  off  the  Pacific  Ocean  during  the  winter  and  upon 
the  lofty  mountains  deep  snow  gathers.  Water  for  irrigation  during 
the  long  dry  summers  is  supplied  by  reservoirs  and  the  melting  of  the 
snow.  Although  a  small  part  of  the  state  is  by  nature  a  desert,  the 
addition  of  water  to  the  fertile   soil  has   changed  the  country  so 


Fig.  145. 
Raisins  drying  between  the  rows  of  grape  vines  in  a  California  vineyard. 

irrigated  to  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  the  world.  This  region  pro- 
duces oranges,  lemons,  prunes,  peaches,  pears,  grapes,  figs,  olives, 
walnuts,  almonds,  barley,  wheat,  beans,  sugar  beets,  alfalfa,  and  many 
other  kinds  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  grains. 

Among  the  fruits  the  most  common  is  the  orange,  especially  the  seed- 
less navel  orange.  In  the  valleys  of  southern  California  nearly  every 
home  has  its  orange  trees  (Fig.  144),  and  in  many  cases  is  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  groves  of  them.  The  winter  season  is  the  harvest  time  for 
oranges,  which  begin  to  be  picked  from  the  trees  about  the  last  of  November 
and  continue  to  be  gathered  until  March  or  later.  They  are  cut  from  the 
trees,  sorted  according  to  size,  then  packed  in  boxes  and  shipped  away. 

Besides  fruit  in  the  fresh  state,  immense  quantities  of  fruit,  such  as 
peaches,  prunes,  apricots,  grapes  (Fig.  145),  and  figs,  are  dried,  usually  by  ex- 
posure to  the  sun.  In  the  Eastern  States  fruit  would  decay  if  left  out  of  doors ; 
but  in  the  sunny  climate  of  the  arid  lands  it  dries  quickly.  Great  quantities 
of  fruit  are  also  canned,  as  near  Baltimore  and  elsewhere  in  the  East. 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


161 


The  beet-sugar  industry  is  carried  on  extensively  in  California.  Thou- 
sands of  acres  are  planted  annually  to  beets  which  are  converted  into 
sugar  by  the  beet-sugar  factories  located  at  Spreckels  (Eig.  146),  Oxnard, 
Hamilton,  Chino,  Alvarado,  Betteravia,  Los  Alamitos,  Watsonville,  Visalia, 
and  Corcoran. 

Thousands  of  persons  from  the  East  were  originally  attracted 
to  California  by  the  mild  and  healthful  climate;  but  seeing  the 
opportunity  for  fruit  raising,  they  started  orchards.  In  the 
valleys  which  are  too  cool  for  raising  oranges  and  other  sub-tropical 
fruits,  thousands  of  acres  are  devoted  to  prunes,  apricots,  grapes. 


Fig.  146. 
Spreckels  beet-sugar  factory.    2700  tons  daily. 


pears,  and  apples.  Land  that  a  few  years  ago  was  almost  a  desert, 
and  worth  at  best  only  a  few  dollars  an  acre,  now  supports  flourish- 
ing groves  of  fruit. 

So  important  is  irrigation  that  it  is  being  introduced  wherever 
possible  ;  and  every  year  new  irrigation  systems  are  being  built,  some 
of  them  at  great  expense.  One  of  the  future  problems  of  the  West 
is  how  to  store  the  water  of  the  melting  snows  until  needed  by  the 
summer  crops. 

Ranching. — The  manner  in  which  a  cattle  ranch  in  Dakota  is  con- 
ducted was  described  on  page  129,  and  much  the  same  plan  is  followed 
for  cattle  and  horses  in  the  Western  States.  Sheep  ranching  is  con- 
ducted somewhat  differently,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  ranches  about 
Billings,  Montana.  A  good-sized  ranch  has  from  twenty-five  thou- 
sand to  forty  thousand  head  of  sheep,  which,  like  cattle,  may  be  fed 
partly  upon  the  government  land,  or  the  "range,"  and  partly  on  land 


162 


NORTH   AMERICA 


fenced  in  and  owned  by  the  ranchman.  During  the  coldest  winter 
weather  the  sheep  are  in  many  cases  driven  into  protected  corrals 
and  fed  on  alfalfa  because  the  snow  on  the  range  sometimes  becomes 
so  deep  that  they  cannot  obtain  food. 


Fig.  147. 
A  sheep  herder,  and  his  flock  of  sheep. 


When  the  sheep  are  feeding  on  the  range  one  man  with  a  dog 
(Fig.  147)  can  herd, twenty-five  hundred;  and,  with  a  horse  in  addi- 
tion, he  sometimes  takes  care  of  five  thousand.     Selecting  some  spot 


Fig.  148. 
CJ.  S.  Battleship  Oregon.    Built  by  the  Union  Iron  Works. 


THE   WESTERN    STATES  163 

near  water  for  a  camp,  the  herder  drives  his  sheep  out  each  morning 
and  back  at  night,  going  each  day  a  distance  of  a  mile  or  two  from 
camp.  When  the  grass  is  eaten  in  one  place,  the  camp  is  moved; 
then,  from  another  point  as  a  center,  they  wander  out  as  before. 

After  the  winter  is  over,  the  first  returns  to  the  ranchman  come  from 
the  sale  of  the  pelts  of  sheep  which  have  died  during  the  cold  weather.  He 
expects  a  loss  of  about  five  per  cent  a  year  from  this  cause. 

The  real  harvest  comes  from  the  wool.  Men  who  make  it  their  busi- 
ness to  shear  sheep  travel  in  squads  of  about  twenty-five.  They  erect 
sheds  and  pens  near  some  sheep  center,  such  as  Billings,  and  shear  all 
the  sheep  that  are  brought  to  them  (Fig.  101).  Sometimes  sheep  are 
sheared  at  the  ranch;  but  many  consider  it  more  desirable  to  drive  them 
near  to  a  market,  thus  saving  the  expense  of  drawing  the  wool  a  long 
distance  to  the  railway  station.  In  this  way  the  sheep  also  secure  food 
on  the  range  while  on  the  journey  to  and  from  the  market. 

In  the  Southwestern  States  sheep  are  often  sheared  twice  a  year ;  but 
farther  north  it  is  done  only  once,  and  then  as  near  the  month  of  June  as  pos- 
sible. Can  you  suggest  a  reason  for  choosing  that  time  ?  After  the  wool 
is  cut,  it  is  pressed  into  bales  and  shipped  to  various  markets  in  the  East. 
Where  should  you  think  it  might  be  sent,  and  for  what  purpose  used  ? 

From  July  on,  many  sheep  are  sold  for  mutton.  Those  that  are  from 
three  to  five  years  old,  and  that  have  already  borne  a  quantity  of  wool,  are 
usually  selected  for  this  purpose.  The  hides  are  useful  for  leather,  the 
bones  for  fertilizing  the  soil,  and  the  tallow  for  candles. 

Territories. — Arizona  and  New  Mexico  are  still  territories,  al- 
though efforts  have  been  made  to  unite  the  two  for  admission  as  a 
single  state. 


Fig.  149. 
Cliff  dwelling's,  built  beneath  the  overhanging  cliffi. 


164 


NORTH   AMERICA 


This  is  the  region  in  which  some  @f  the  most  highly  developed 
Indians  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  (p.  33).  Now  most  of  the 
country  is  occupied  by  Americans  who  have  formed  numerous  towns 
and  cities,  such  as  TucsoK,  Prescott,  and  Phcenix,  in  Arizona,  and 
Albuquerque  in  New  Mexico. 

The  Pueblo  Indians  still  live  after  the  manner  of  their  ancestors. 
Their  homes  are  built  of  sun-dried  clay,  or  adobe,  and  in  some  cases  are 
entered  from  the  roof  by  means  of  a  ladder  (Fig.  28).  Other  Indian 
houses,  the  cliff  dicellings  (Fig.  149),  were  built  on  the  sides  of  cliffs  be- 
neath overhanging  ledges ;  and  still  others,  cave  dwellings,  were  in  caves. 
Among  the  early  Spanish  settlements  is  the  quaint  city  of  Santa  Fb, 
the  capital  of  New  Mexico.  There,  as  elsewhere  in  the  territory,  the 
houses  are  mostly  low,  one-story,  adobe  buildings  (Fig.  150).  Spanish  is 
the  language  most  commonly  heard,  and  on  all  hands  one  sees  the  primi- 
tive customs  of  a  century  ago.  For  instance,  wheat,  instead  of  being 
threshed  out  by  machines,  is  often  spread  upon  the  ground  in  an  inclosure 
and  trampled  by  goats  until  the  grain  is  separated  from  the  hull.  The 
grain  is  then  tossed  into  the  air  in  order  that  the  wind  may  carry  away 

the  chaff.  However,  in 
many  parts  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona,  agriculture, 
mining,  and  other  industries 
are  well  developed,  and  the 
leading  cities  and  towns  are 
enterprising  and  prosperous 
American  communities. 

Scenery 

In  many  places  among 
the  mountains  there  are 
sights  comparing  favorably 
with  those  of  the  Alps, 
which  attract  so  many 
Americans  abroad.  Fine  views,  strangely  formed  cliffs,  deep  canyons, 
and  imposing  waterfalls  are  present  without  number.  But  among  all 
the  interesting  places  there  are  three  that  easily  surpass  the  others 
in  magnificence  and  grandeur.  These  are  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park,  the  Colorado  Canyon,  and  the  Yosemite  Valley. 

The  Yellowstone  Park. — This  region,  chiefly  in  Wyoming,  is  a 
tract  of  land,  larger  than  Connecticut,  which  the  government  has 
set  aside  as  a  national  park.  It  is  often  called  the  "  Wonderland 
of   America."      Among   the  many  objects  of   interest  are  boiling 


Fig.  150. 

A  view  in  a  New  Mexico  town,  showing  the  low  adobe 
houses  in  which  the  Mexicans  live. 


THE    WESTERN    STATES 


106 


springs,  boiling  mud  springs  of  different  colors,  deep  canyons  and 
waterfalls.  Some  of  the  springs  are  on  the  level  of  the  ground,  so 
that  one  must  be  on  the  constant  outlook  lest  he  step  into  one ; 
others  are  surrounded  by  a  rim  several  feet  high. 

A  stage  road  leads  from  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  to  the  Mammoth 
Hot  Springs  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Park.  Here  and  there  are  geysers, 
from  which  hot  water  and  steam  occasionally  burst  forth  with  great  vio-~ 
lence,  sometimes  to  a  height  of  100 
or  200  feet.  "  Old  Faithful'^  (Fig. 
151),  one  of  the  most  regular  of 
these,  plays  at  intervals  of  65  min- 
utes to  a  height  of  100  to  130  feet. 

Beyond  the  geyser  basins  the 
Yellowstone  Lake  is  reached,  a 
beautiful  sheet  of  water,  nestled  in 
the  mountains  at  a  height  of  nearly 
8000  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  waters 
flow  northward,  forming  the  Yellow- 
stone River,  a  tributary  of  the  Mis- 
souri. To  many  persons,  the  falls 
(Fig.  K)  and  canyon  of  this  river 
are  the  greatest  wonders  of  the 
Park,  Soon  after  leaving  the  lake, 
the  stream  narrows  and  quickens, 
and  the  water  leaps  109  feet  di- 
rectly downward.  A  short  distance 
farther  on  it  tumbles  308  feet 
farther,  or  almost  twice  the  height 
of  Niagara.  It  then  runs  between 
banks  which  rise  1000  feet  above  it. 

The  canyon  is  somewhat  wind- 
ing, with  numerous  bold  cliffs  jutting 
far  out  into  the  abyss ;  and  from  these,  wonderful  and  inspiring  views 
may  be  obtained.  Far  below,  one  sees  the  silvery  stream,  too  distant  to 
be  heard  as  it  dashes  along.  Across  the  chasm,  a  half  mile  away,  dark 
green  pines  fringe  the  cliff ;  and  between  the  water  and  these  woods  are 
gorgeously  colored  rock  strata,  having  all  tints  of  the  rainbow. 

Colorado  Canyon.  —  One  portion  of  the  Colorado  Canyon,  in 
Arizona  (Fig.  L),  may  be  reached  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  Railway.  The  wonderful  Yellowstone  Canyon,  just  de- 
scribed, is  a  pygmy  compared  with  this. 

As  one  first  looks  out  over  the  canyon  he  sees  nothing  but  towers, 
pinnacles,  many-colored  layers  of  rock,  and  apparently  bottomless 
depths.     When  he  finally  takes  a  position  from  which  he  can  see  the 


Fig.  151. 

An  eruption  of    "Old  Faithful,"  Yellow- 
stone Park. 


Fig.  152. 
Mariposa  Big  Trees,  California 


Fig.  K.—  Grand  Canyon  and  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone. 


18 — A  Q 


Fig.   L.— The  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado. 
167 


Fia  M,  —  Nevada  Falls,  Yosemite  Valley. 

lies 


THE   WESTERN    STATES  169 

threadlike  stream  far  below,  it  seems  almost  impossible  that  so  little 
water  could  have  wrought  such  a  mighty  work. 

The  difficult  path  which  leads  to  the  bottom  is  seven  miles  long, 
and  the  trip  down  and  back  is  a  full  day's  journey  ;  but  without  mak- 
ing it,  one  fails  to  appreciate  fully  the  marvelous  carving,  sculpturing, 
and  coloring.  At  the  bottom  the  scene  is  entirely  changed ;  and,  as 
one  looks  upward  to  see  himself  shut  in  by  walls  which  seem  to  ex- 
tend to  the  very  heavens,  his  own  littleness  and  the  immensity  of 
the  work  of  Nature  are  wonderfully  impressed  upon  him. 

Yosemite  Valley.  —  In  California,  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  about  150  miles  east  of  San  Francisco, 
is  the  famous  Yosemite  Valley  (Figs.  A  and  M).  This  valley  is 
six  miles  long  and  from  one  half  mile  to  a  mile  in  width.  Its 
almost  vertical  granite  walls  rise  from  3000  to  5000  feet.  From 
the  top  of  these  cliffs  the  Merced  River  and  its  tributaries  fall  in 
grand  cataracts  from  400  to  1 500  feet  in  height. 

Some  of  the  most  magnificent  scenery  in  the  world  is  found  in 
this  small  valley. 

About  thirty  miles  southward  from  the  Yosemite  Valley  is  the 
Mariposa  grove  of  Big  Trees  (Fig.  152),  the  largest  of  which  is 
thirty-five  feet  in  diameter,  towering  three  hundred  feet  high  — 
the  giant  trees  of  the  world. 

The  Cities 

Cities  in  the  Interior.  —  Large  inland  cities  in  the  Western  States 
are  very  few  in  number,  the  greatest  being  Denver,  the  capital  of 
Colorado.  This  city  is  located  on  the  site  of  a  small  mining  camp, 
but  its  growth  is  chiefly  due  to  two  facts :  (1)  the  numerous  mining 
towns  among  the  mountains,  and  (2)  the  near  presence  of  water, 
which  has  made  irrigation  on  a  large  scale  possible  (p.  157).  The 
first  fact  calls  for  an  important  trade  center  somewhere  in  that  region, 
and  the  second  makes  it  possible  to  secure  food. 

Denver  has  now  become  a  railway  and  manufacturing  center, 
where  ore  is  smelted,  and  machinery,  flour,  and  cloth  manufactured. 
It  is  also  of  importance  as  a  health  resort,  for  its  altitude  of  over 
five  thousand  feet,  and  its  dry  climate,  render  it  especially  adapted 
to  persons  suffering  from  lung  trouble.  Colorado  Springs,  south 
of  Denver  and  near  Pike's  Peak,  is  one  of  the  leading  health  resorts 
in  the  country. 


170 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Pueblo,  a  trade  and  manufacturing  center,  is  situated  where  thfe 

Santa  Fe  line  meets  tiie  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railway.     In  this 

'city  much  ore  is  smelted,  and  iron  goods  are  manufactured.     It  is  its 

nearness  to  coal  and  iron  ore  which  makes  the  latter  industry  possible. 

Cities  on  the  Pacific  Slope.  —  The  largest  city  in  all  these  states  is 

San  Francisco 
(Fig.  132),  located 
on  a  remarkably 
fine  harbor  which 
was  formed  by 
the  sinking  of 
the  coast,  as  the 
harbor  of  New 
York  City  was 
formed.  As  in 
that  case,  too,  there 
are  other  important 
cities  near  at  hand 
— the  largest  being 
Oakland.  Close 
to  San  Francisco 
are  the  two  most 
important  educa- 
tional institutions 
in  the  Far  West, 
—  one,  the  University  of  California,  at  Berkeley  (Fig.  125  a),  the 
other,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  (Fig.  125  b),  a  short  dis- 
tance south  of  San  Francisco.  Farther  south  is  San  Jost,  and  to 
the  northeast  are  Sacramento,  the  capital,  and  Stockton. 

The  enormous  crops  of  wheat,  fruit,  and  wool  in  northern  Cali- 
fornia suggest  some  of  the  occupations  in  these  cities.  What  are 
they?  Owing  partly  to  an  insufficient  supply  of  coal,  manufactur- 
ing was  slow  in  developing  in  this  region,  but  now  this  need  is  sup- 
plied by  an  abundance  of  crude  petroleum  found  in  central  and 
southern  California,  and  many  important  industries  are  springing  up. 
In  western  Oregon  and  northern  California  wood  is  largely  used  for 
fuel.  Most  of  the  wool  raised  in  the  West  is  shipped  to  the  East  to 
be  manufactured  into  clothing,  blankets,  etc.,  and  some  of  these 
manufactured  articles  are  sent  to  California  to  be  sold. 

San  Francisco  has  important  foundries  and  machine  shops,  flour 


Fig.  153. 

The  County  Court  House,  Los  Angeles,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
buildings  in  the  country. 


THE  WESTERN  STATES 


in 


and  woolen  mills,  sugar  refineries,  canning  factories,  breweries,  and 
distilleries.  The  principal  products  sent  away  from  the  state  are 
gold  and  silver,  wine,  fruit,  wool,  grain,  and  manufactured  goods, 
some  going  East  by  rail  and  some  by  water.  This  is  the  greatest 
shipping  point  on  the  Pacific  coast ;  and  as  our  trade  with  the  Phil- 


IM 

B  uraRS^       ^ 

w 

1 

1 

^k 

d 

M 

'm^^M 

S^  9 

^^ 

rw  >  -^  ^^ 

7?- 

"1 

't 

■"-■■■'  ■       .'^ 

t 

Fig.  154. 
Chester  Place,  Los  Angeles. 


ippines,  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  other  Pacific  countries  increases,  we 
may  expect  San  Francisco  to  grow  even  more  rapidly. 

The  Union  Iron  Works  of  San  Francisco  built  the  U.  S.  Battle- 
ship Oregon  (Fig.  148),  which  went  around  "  The  Horn "  and 
assisted  in  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Fleet  at  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
the  U.  S.  S.  California^  and  in  fact  all  war  vessels  built  for  the 
government  on  the  Pacific  coast,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
U.  S.  S.  Nebraska^  which  was  built  by  the  Moran  Shipbuilding 
Company  of  Seattle,  Washington. 

There  are  few  good  harbors  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States  compared  with  those  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 


172  NORTH   AMERICA 

San  Francisco  Bay  has  few  equals  as  a  harbor  ;  it  could  float  ai 
one  time  all  the  navies  of  the  world. 

South  of  San  Francisco  are  the  harbors  of  Monterey  Bay,  Santa 
Barbara  Channel,  San  Pedro,  and  San  Diego  Bay.  Estimate  the 
distance  of  these  points  from  San  Francisco  (Fig.  132). 

From  the  harbor  of  Humboldt  Bay,  north  of  San  Francisco,  are 
shipped  large  quantities  of  lumber,  shingles,  and  dairy  products. 

The  harbor  of  Portland,  Oregon,  is  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Columbia  River,  about  a  hundred  miles  up  the  river  at  the  head  of 
deep-water  navigation.  Most  of  the  other  important  towns  of  Oregon 
are  inland,  and  Portland  has  grown  to  be  the  chief  shipping  point  by 
water,  and  therefore  the  largest  city.  From  this  point  wheat,  wool, 
and  lumber,  the  leading  products  of  Oregon,  are  shipped  in  great 
quantities.  Portland  has  extensive  manufactories  of  woolen  goods, 
flour,  and  furniture  ;  and  Salem,  the  capital,  also  has  large  woolen 
and  flour  mills. 

Farther  down  the  Columbia  are  several  towns,  the  largest  being 
Astoria,  where,  as  elsewhere  along  the  river,  the  salmon  industry  is 
developed.  The  salmon,  like  the  shad  of  the  East  (p.  72),  although 
spending  its  life  in  the  ocean,  passes  up  the  rivers  to  spawn,  or  lay  its  eggs, 
in  fresh  water.  In  their  passage  the  fish  are  caught  in  great  numbers 
(Figs.  155  and  156). 

In  Washington,  Seattle  and  Tacoma  (Fig.  131)  are  situated 
on  Puget  Sound ;   but  Spokane,  the  third  city  in  size,  is  located 


p 

m 

V 

1 

■ 

Iml^ 

I^^E^^^^I^'^ 

^M 

^P" 

^^^^■H 

umm 

IBfi^^^^c^' 

^^r 

'  k 

Wf^M 

i^^ 

ifr^  ^  ^ 

'^^^'•^^ 

Wp*^^ 

Fig.  155. 
Catching  salmon  in  dip  nets  as  they  leap  over  the  falls. 


THE   WESTERN    STATES 


173 


near  Spokane  Falls  on  the  Spokane  River  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state. 
Coal,  lumber,  grain,  and  hops  are  the  principal  exports.  There  is  also 
extensive  manufacture  of 
flour  at  Spokane,  and  of 
lumber  and  furniture 
along  the  shores  of  Puget 
Sound,  especially  at 
Seattle  and  Tacoma. 
These  goods  are  shipped 
away  in  large  amounts, 
some  going  to  the  East- 
ern cities,  some  to  China, 
Japan,  the  Philippines, 
Alaska,  and  other  coun- 
tries. 

On  Figure  227  notice 
what  great  lines  of  rail- 
way cross  the  continent 
to  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  in  what  cities  they  terminate.  What  about  the  number  of  rail- 
ways on  the  Pacific  coast  compared  with  those  on  the  Atlantic? 


Fig.  156. 

A  wheel,  with  a  net  on  it,  which  revolves  in  the  current 
and  lifts  the  salmon  from  the  water  as  they  swim 
past. 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Review  Questions  and  Topics. —  (1)  Tell  how  California  became  settled. 
(2)  How  did  gold  get  into  the  streams?  (3)  How  did  the  prospectors  obtain  it ? 
(4)  Describe  the  physiography: — the  mountains  and  plateaus;  the  volcanoes; 
their  effects.  (5)  'Jell  about  the  climate:  —  the  aridity;  the  rainy  Northwest ; 
the  deserts;  the  effect  of  plateaus  and  mountains.  (0)  What  minerals  are  found 
in  tlie  West  ?  (7)  Tell  about  the  prospectors.  (8)  Describe  hydraulic  mining. 
(9)  What  kind  of  gold  mining  is  now  most  common?  (10)  Give  the  history  of 
the  Com  stock  Lode.  (11)  What  effect  did  it  have  upon  Nevada?  (12)  W'hat 
state  now  produces  most  gold  and  silver?  (13)  Name  and  locate  the  principal 
mining  towns  in  Colorado.  (14)  What  must  be  done  with  the  ore?  W^here  is  it 
done?  (15)  Name  and  locate  the  principal  mining  town  in  Montana.  (16)  .In 
Arizona.  (17)  Where  is  copper  found  in  these  states?  (18)  Where  is  coal  chiefly 
found?  (19)  Where  are  the  forests?  Why?  (20)  Describe  lumbering  near 
Taconja.  (21)  What  are  the  farm  products  of  the  sections  that  are  well  supplied 
with  rain?  (22)  State  the  plan  for  irrigating  the  land  near  Denver.  (23)  Tell 
how  irrigation  has  influenced  the  settlement  of  tlie  AVest.  (24)  Name  some  cities 
that  have  irrigation  systems.  (25)  Tell  about  the  Mormons.  (26)  Describe  the 
fruit  region  of  southern  California:  —  the  appearance  of  the  country;  the  climate; 
the  products;    what  is  done  with   them;    the  cities;    the  importance  of  water. 

(27)  W^hy  is   ranching   carried   on    in    the    West?     What  animals  are  raised? 

(28)  Tell  about  sheep  ranching  :  —  number  of  sheep  ;  care  given  them;  shearing; 


174  NOBTB   AMERICA 

uses  of  the  products.     (29)    Tell  about  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

(30)  About  the  primitive  customs  of  the  Mexicans.  (31)  Describe  the  Yellow- 
stone Park:  —  location;  size;  springs  and  geysers;  the  canyon.  (32)  Describe 
the  Colorado  canyon.  (33)  The  Yosemite  Park.  (34)  Name  the  principal  inland 
cities,  telling  for  what  each  is  important.  (35)  What  cities  are  on  or  near  San 
Francisco  Bay?  For  what  important?  (36)  Tell  about  San  Francisco.  (37)  Name 
the  harbors  south  of  San  Francisco.  (38)  Describe  the  location  and  industries  of 
Portland.  (39)  What  is  done  at  Salem  ?  (40)  Tell  about  the  salmon  industry. 
(41)   Name  the  cities  of  Washington.     For  what  is  each  important  ? 

Review  by  States  :  Montana  {Mont.).  —  (1)  What  industries  are  carried 
on  in   the   eastern  part?    Why?     (2)    What   industries   in  the  western  part? 

(3)  N.ame  the  cities  mentioned  in  Montana,  and  tell  for  what  each  is  important. 

(4)  What  two  large  rivers  drain  this  section?  (5)  Through  what  states  do  they 
flow  before  reaching  the  Gulf  ?  (6)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  state ;  and,  as 
each  of  the  other  states  is  studied,  do  the  same  for  that. 

Wyoming  {Wy.),  —  (7)  What  industries  are  carried  on  in  this  state? 
(8)  What  cities  are  mentioned ?  In  what  connection?  (9)  Find  the  Yellowstone 
Park,  and  tell  for  what  it  is  noted.  (10)  On  the  maps  showing  principal  grain- 
producing  regions  (Figs.  209  and  211),  Wyoming  is  a  state  where  very  little  is 
produced.     Why  so  little  there  ? 

Colorado  {Col.  or  Colo.).  —  (11)  Examine  Figures  209  to  226  to  see  what  is 
done  in  Colorado.  (12)  Give  the  reason  why  there  is  more  water  for  irrigation 
in  this  state  than  in  some  of  the  others.  (13)  Trace  the  divide  between  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  drainage,  as  :t  crosses  Colorado.  Trace  it  northward  to 
Canada  and  southward  to  Mexico.  (14)  Name  the  cities  in  Colorado  mentioned 
in  the  text,  and  tell  for  what  each  is  important.  (15)  Find  the  population  of 
Denver.  (Appendix,  p.  v.)  Compare  it  with  the  largest  city  in  each  of  the  other 
Western  States,  and  also  with  New  Orleans,  Buffalo,  and  St.  Louis. 

New  Mexico  (iV.M.)  —  (16)  What  about  the  inhabitants?  (17)  What  is 
said  about  the  industries?  (18)  Find  how  large  is  the  largest  city.  (Appendix, 
p.  iv.)     (19)   Compare  it  with  the  largest  city  in  Massachusetts.     In  Nevada. 

Arizona  {Ariz.). —  (20)  Tell  about  the  river  that  crosses  the  territory. 
(21)  What  city  and  industries  are  mentioned?  (22)  What  minerals  are  obtained 
here?  (23)  How  does  the  largest  city  compare  in  size  with  the  largest  in  New 
Mexico?    In  Colorado? 

Nevada  {Nev.). —  (24)  For  what  was  Nevada  famous  ?  (25)  Find  its  present 
population.     (Appendix,  p.  iii.)     Why  are  there  so  few  people ? 

Utah.  —  (26)  Tell  why  the  Great  Salt  Lake  is  salt.  (See  First  Book,  p.  55.) 
(27)  What  are  the  industries  of  this  state?  (28)  What  cities  are  mentioned? 
Tell  about  each.  (29)  Examine  the  maps,  Figures  209  to  224,  to  see  what  prod- 
ucts come  from  Utah. 

Idaho  (/^a.).  — (30)  What  metals  are  obtained?     (See  Figs.  224  and  226.) 

(31)  What  great  river  drains  Idaho?  (32)  What  mountain  range  forms  the 
eastern  boundary  ? 

Washington  {Wash.). —  (33)  Compare  the  coast  line  with  that  of  Oregon  ;  of 
Maine.  (34)  Tell  about  the  rainfall  of  this  state.  Compare  it  with  Montana 
(page  150).  Why  this  difference?  (35)  What  effect  has  the  rainfall  upon  the 
industries?  What  are  the  principal  industries?  (36)  What  cities  are  mentioned 
in  the  text  ?    Tell  about  each. 

Oregon  {Ore.).  —  (37)  What  advantage  do  you  see  in  the  location  of  the  larg- 
est city?     (38)    Compare  it  in  size  with  Denver,  New  York,  Boston,  and  New 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS  175 

Orleans.  (39)  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  209  to  224)  to  see  what  is  produced  in 
Oregon.  (40)  What  industries  are  mentioned  in  the  text?  (41)  What  cities  are 
mentioned  and  in  what  connection? 

California  (^Cal.).  —  (42)  What  about  the  rainfall?  (43)  What  rivers  drain 
most  of  this  state ?  (44)  Describe  the  relief.  (45)  Name  the  cities  mentioned; 
for  what  is  each  important?  (46)  What  industries  in  the  state?  (47)  What 
advantage  do  you  see  in  the  location  of  San  Francisco?  (48)  Compare  its  popu- 
lation with  that  of  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Denver,  and  Chicago.  (49)  What 
caused  the  early  growth  of  California?  What  effect  has  that  had  on  the  other 
Western  States?     (50)    To  whom  did  California  belong  before  we  obtained  it? 

General.  —  (51)  Which  state  has  the  largest  population?  (See  Appendix, 
p.  iii.)  The  smallest?  (52)  Compare  each  with  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New 
York,  and  South  Carolina.  (53)  Name  the  ten  largest  cities.  (Appendix,  pp.  iv-vii.) 
Add  their  populations  together,  and  compare  the  result  with  the  ten  largest  in 
each  of  the  other  groups.  (54)  Which  group  of  states  has  the  most  large  cities? 
Which  the  least?     What  reasons  can  you  give? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Read  about  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark  from  St. 
Louis  to  the  Pacific  coast  in  1803-1806.  (2)  What  is  the  origin  of  the  expression 
"  to  pan  out  "?  (3)  W^hy  do  the  heavier  rains  on  the  northern  Pacific  coast  come 
in  winter?  (4)  Mention  several  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  having 
no  rain  for  several  months  at  a  time,  as  in  southern  California.  (5)  Make  a  col- 
lection of  minerals  for  the  school.  (6)  Hydraulic  mining  has  been  largely  pro- 
hibited in  many  parts  of  the  West.  Why?  (7)  Should  the  ditch  that  is  to 
irrigate  a  certain  field  skirt  its  upper  or  lower  edge?  Why?  (8)  Which  is  the 
more  easily  irrigated,  nearly  level  land,  or  land  that  is  rough  and  hilly?  Why? 
(9)  Is  southern  California  as  liable  to  cold  snaps  as  Florida?  Why?  (10)  Make 
a  list  of  articles  made  of  wool.  (11)  Why  have  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  not  be- 
come states?  (12)  Find  out  about  the  wild  animals  in  Yellowstone  National 
Park.  (13)  Write  a  story  describing  a  visit  to  southern  California.  (14)  Make  a 
drawing  of  the  Western  States. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  QUESTIONS  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES 

(1)  Name  the  principal  crops  of  the  United  States,  and  tell  in  which  section 
each  is  raised.  (Consult  the  figures,  209  to  231.)  (2)  Do  the  same  for  mineral  prod- 
ucts. (3)  For  other  raw  products.  (4)  For  manufactured  articles.  (5)  Name 
the  five  largest  cities  in  their  order.  (Appendix,  p.  iv.)  For  what  is  each  im- 
portant? (6)  State  some  ways  in  which  the  rainfall  influences  the  occupations 
of  the  people.  (7)  The  temperature.  (8)  State  clearly  the  influence  of  the  sink- 
ing of  the  coast.  (9)  Of  the  glacial  period.  (10)  Of  the  coal  period.  (11)  Of 
the  absence  of  forests  on  the  prairies.  (12)  Of  the  rich  mineral  deposits  in  the 
West.  (13)  In  what  ways  have  the  Great  Lakes  been  of  value?  (14)  Name 
some  of  the  cities  that  have  been  benefited  by  them.  (1.5)  In  what  ways  have 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its  two  largest  tributaries  been  of  value?  (16)  State 
the  natural  advantages  that  have  aided  the  growth  of  Boston,  New  York,  Buf- 
falo, Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  New  Orleans,  Detroit,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  San 
Francisco.  (17)  Can  you  name  some  other  cities  that  have  also  been  influenced 
by  their  surroundings?  (18)  Which  is  the  largest  state?  (Appendix,  p.  iii.) 
The  second  in  size?  The  smallest?  The  next  to  the  smallest?  (19)  Which 
state  has  the  largest  population?     (Appendix,  p.  iii.)     The  second  largest?     The 


1T6 


NORTH    AMERICA 


smallest?  Next  to  the  smallest?  (20)  Draw  a  map  showing  the  states  on  the 
Atlantic  coast.  Also  make  a  map  of  those  along  the  Pacific  coast ;  along  the  Great 
Lakes ;  the  Mississippi  River ;  the  Ohio ;  the  Missouri.  (21)  What  states  border 
Mexico?    Canada? 

For  References,  see  Teacher*s  Booh 


Fig.  N. 
North  Dome,  King's  River  Canyon,  California 


X.     TERRITORIES    AND   DEPENDENCIES    OF   THE 
UNITED   STATES 

At  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  the  United  States  con- 
sisted of  thirteen  small  colonies  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine 
to  Georgia.  The  United  States  claimed  the  land  far  into  the  wilder- 
ness, even  to  the  distant  Mississippi.  Beyond  this  was  French  and 
Spanish  territory,  while  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  was  occupied 
by  Indians.  By  purchase  and  by  war  we  have  acquired  all  the  land 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  w^hich  has  been  described 
in  the  previous  pages ;  but  our  control  does  not  end  with  the 
boundaries  of  the  United  .States  proper.  In  1867  we  acquired 
Alaska,  and  in  1898  we  came  into  possession  of  a  number  of  islands, 
some  of  them  on  the  other  side  of  the  globe.  Since  these  lands 
form  a  part  of  the  territory  controlled  by  our  government,  a  study 
of  them  properly  comes  at  this  point. 

Alaska 

Climate  and  Physiography.  —  For  a  long  time  Alaska*,  which  is 
more  than  twice  as  large  as  Texas,  belonged  to  Russia.  That  nation 
sold  the  territory  to  us  for  $7,200,000 ;  but  at  the  time  many  people 
considered  it  very  unwise  to  pay  so  large  a  sum  for  so  distant  and 
desolate  a  land.  However,  it  has  already  proved  of  great  value,  and 
has  paid  for  itself  many  times  over. 

Since  the  Arctic  Circle  extends  across  the  northern  part  of 
Alaska,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  climate  must  be  very  uninviting. 
The  winters  are  long  and  cold,  and  the  summers  short  and  cool.  A 
strip  of  coast  land  extends  southward  from  the  main  peninsula  of 
Alaska,  and  to  this  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  bring  an  abun- 
dance of  rain  and  snow.  Since  these  winds  come  from  the  ocean  they 
also  render  the  winter  climate  much  less  cold  than  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  territory.  In  this  portion  is  situated  Sitka,  the  capital, 
where  the  governor  of  the  territory  lives. 

A  large  part  of  Alaska  is  mountainous,  for  the  mountains  of  the 
United  States  and  western  Canada  extend  northward  into  this  terri- 

177 


178  NOBTH    AMERICA 

tory.  Among  these  mountains  are  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  continent, 
the  highest  yet  discovered  being  Mt.  McKinley,  which  is  20,464  feet 
high.  Owing  to  the  latitude,  most  of  the  mountains  are  snow- 
covered  throughout  the  year  (Fig.,  158),  and  among  them  are  innu- 
merable glaciers,  many  of  which  reach  down  to  the  sea. 

One  of  the  largest  glaciers  now  on  the  continent,  known  as  the  Muir 
Glacier,  is  located  in  Alaska,  not  far  north  of  Sitka.  It  is  so  wonderful 
and  beautiful  that  many  tourists  visit  it  every  year.  The  long  peninsula 
and  the  chain  of  Aleutian  Islands  which  form  the  southern  boundary 
of  Bering  Sea  are  really  a  growing  mountain  chain  1600  miles  in  length. 
All  together  there  are  57  volcanoes  in  this  chain,  and  it  was  here,  in  1795, 
that  a  new  volcano  suddenly  broke  forth,  building  a  lofty  cone  where 
previously  ships  were  able  to  sail. 

Fishing.  —  Among  the  resources  of  Alaska,  as  in  the  case  of 
other  far  northern  lands,  those  of  the  sea  are  especially  important 
(p.  21).  In  the  shallow  waters  near  the  coast  both  cod  and  halibut 
abound,  while  immense  numbers  of  salmon  run  up  the  rivers  every 
summer,  as  they  do  in  northern  United  States  and  Canada  (pp.  172 
and  195).  The  fishing  industry  is  only  partly  developed,  chiefly 
because  of  the  great  distance  from  a  profitable  market;  but  the 
waters  of  the  Alaskan  coast  form  an  important  fishing  reserve  for 
the  future. 

Whaling.  —  Every  year  steamers,  especially  built  for  the  purpose,  ven- 
ture through  Bering  Strait  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  search  of  the  whale. 
It  is  a  hazardous  occupation,  and  but  few  ships  are  now  engaged  in  it. 
They  are  obliged  to  push  their  way  into  the  Jloe  ice  (Fig.  265),  in  which 
they  are  in  danger  of  being  imprisoned  and  held  firmly  through  the 
winter. 

A  whale  (Fig.  159),  which  is  sometimes  over  a  hundred  feet  long,  is 
really  a  land  animal  which  has  taken  up  life  in  the  sea,  as  seals  and  wal- 
ruses have.  Therefore,  unlike  the  true  fishes,  which  secure  air  from  the 
water  by  means  of  gills,  the  whale  must  now  and  then  rise  to  the  surface 
for  air.  It  is  when  rising  to  breathe,  or  "  blow,"  that  the  huge  creatures 
are  harpooned. 

Sealing.  —  In  the  Arctic  are  found  many  different  kinds  of  seal. 
One  of  these,  the  fur  seal^  which  lives  in  Bering  Sea,  is  of  great 
value  because  of  its  soft  fur,  which  is  much  used  for  winter  cloaks. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  fur  seals  swim  in  the 
sea  in  search  of  food  ;  but  in  the  spring,  during  the  breeding 
season,  they  resort  to  the  Pribilof  Islands.  The  United  States 
government   prohibits   all   persons   from    killing    them    except  one 


S   "O  ^ 


Fig.  158. 
S.  S.  Spokane  at  Muir  Glacier,  Alaska. 


Fig.  159. 
A  whale  ashore,  and  a  whaling  steamer  lying  off  in  deep  water. 


Fig.  O. 

Totem  Pole,  Wrangel, 
Alaska. 


Fig.  160. 
Floating  iceberg  in  Glacier  Bay,  Alaska. 


TERRITORIES    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


179 


Fig.  161. 

Fur  seals  among  the  rocks  near  the  coast  of  one  of  the 
Pribilof  Islands. 


company,  which  pays  a  special  tax  for  the  privilege  of  securing  a 
certain  number  each  year.  At  the  proper  season  the  men  select  a 
number  of  males,  —  for  a  law  forbids  the  taking  of  the  females, — 
and  drive  them  off 
for  slaughter,  much  as 
sheep  would  be  driven. 
Mining.  — While 
there  is  some  oppor- 
tunity for  farming  in 
southern  Alaska,  and 
the  great  tracts  of  forest 
land  may  be  the  seat  of 
an  important  lumber- 
ing industry  in  the 
future,  at  present  the 
most  noted  industry  of 
Alaska  is  gold  mining. 

There  are  extensive  deposits  of  gold,  copper,  coal,  and  other  min- 
erals; but  they  are  so  difficult  to  reach  that  there  has  been  little 
development  of  any  of  these  except  the  first.  A  short  distance 
north   of   Sitka,  at   Juneau,  there   are    some   very  profitable  gold 

mines;  and  else- 
where in  the  terri- 
tory gold  mining  is 
also  carried  on. 

Recently,  Alaska 
and  the  neighboring 
Klondike  region, 
just  across  the  line 
in  Canada,  have 
attracted  atten- 
tion because  of  the 
discovery  of  rich  de- 
posits of  gold-bear- 
ing gravels,  some- 
Miners  fording  the  icy  water  of  an  Alaskan  river,  on  the       what    like    those 

found  in  California 
in  1848.  Although 
a  bleak,  desolate  region,  far  in  the  interior  and  difficult  of  access, 
TXieu  have  rushed  to  it,  as  years  ago  they  hurried  to  California.     Some 


Fk;.  l(i 


way  to  the  Klondike.    Two  of  them  are  harnessed  in  a 
wagon  containing  their  supplies. 


180  NORTH    AMERICA 

have  gone  overland  across  the  mountain  passes  (Fig.  162);  others 
have  traveled  an  easier  route  by  water,  taking  a  steamer  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Yukon  River,  one  of  the  longest  rivers  on  the  conti- 
nent. There  they  transferred  to  river  boats ;  but  since  the  Yukon 
is  frozen  over  during  most  of  the  year,  this  journey  can  be  made 
only  in  summer. 

In  the  scramble  for  gold  many  persons  have  endured  terrible  hardships. 
Most  of  them  have  returned  with  little  of  the  precious  metal,  but  some 
have  brought  back  fortunes.  Good-sized  towns  have  grown  up  as  a  result 
of  the  inrush  of  people,  the  largest  being  Dawson  City,  Canada,  and 
Circle  City  in  Alaska,  just  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  Another  city  that 
grew  in  a  single  season  is  Nome  City. 


Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 

While  the  United  States  has  within  recent  years  secured  posses- 
sion of  bleak  northern  lands,  it  has  still  more  recently  come  into 
control  of  some  warm  tropical  islands.  As  a  result  of  the  war  of 
1898,  Porto  Rico  was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  Cuba  was  given 
its  independence  under  the  general  guidance  of  the  United  States. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  Among  the  West  Indies  (p.  214) 
the  largest  island  is  Cuba,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  Pennsylvania, 
although  much  longer  and  narrower.  The  next  in  size  is  Haiti,  and 
of  the  others  the  only  two  of  much  importance  are  Jamaica  and  Porto 
Rico,  the  latter  being  three-fourths  the  area  of  Connecticut.  Cuba, 
Haiti,  and  Porto  Rico  form  a  portion  of  a  single  mountain  chain, 
highest  in  Haiti,  though  reaching  an  elevation  of  8600  feet  in  Cuba. 

While  there  are  tree-covered  mountain  ranges  in  each  of  the 
islands,  a  large  portion  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  has  been  cleared 
and  cultivated.  This  is  especially  true  of  Porto  Rico,  which  is  really 
an  island  of  farms.  Crops  grow  luxuriantly,  partly  because  of  the 
excellent  soil,  formed  by  the  decay  of  the  rocks,  and  partly  because 
of  the  favorable  climate. 

The  islands  are  entirely  within  the  tropical  zone,  so  that  their 
temperature  throughout  the  year  is  high ;  and  on  the  lowlands  neither 
snow  nor  frost  is  known.  They  receive  an  abundance  of  rain,  es- 
pecially upon  the  northeastern  or  windward  slopes,  where  the  damp 
winds  which  blow  from  the  northeast  first  reach  the  land.  The  sum- 
mer is  the  rainiest  season,  for  then  these  winds  blow  with  greater 
strength  and  steadiness. 


Fig.  164  (upper). 
Morro  Castle,  at  the  entrance  to  Havana  harbor. 


Fig.  165  (lower). 
A  home  in  Cuba. 


TERRITORIES    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


181 


Forests  and  Minerals.  —  When  first  settled,  the  West  Indies  were  cov- 
ered by  a  dense  tropical  forest.  Much  of  this  has  been  cleared  away  for 
purposes  of  farming ;  but  some  of  the  woods  still  remain,  especially  among 
the  higher  mountains.  In  Cuba,  for  instance,  there  is  still  much  valuable 
timber,  such  as  mahogany,  ebony,  and  fustic,  which  produces  a  valuable 
yellow  dye. 

Besides  these  raw  products  of  the  soil,  there  is  much  mineral  wealth 
in  Cuba.  Copper  is  found  there,  and  also  iron,  the  latter  having  been 
mined  for  a  long  time  in  the  neighborhood  of  Santiago. 

Agriculture.  —  However,  it  is  agriculture  that  forms  the  chief 
industry  of  the  Cubans  and  Porto  Ricans.  As  in  all  the  West  In- 
dies, the  principal  crop  is  sugar  cane  (Fig.  204),  which  grows  well 
in  the  rich  soil  and  the  warm,  rainy  climate.  Although  much  sugar 
is  raised,  the  industry  has  not  proved  very  profitable  because  of  the 
primitive  methods  employed  and  the  absence  of  a  good  market.  Now 
that  the  United  States  has  come  into  closer  relation  with  these  islands 
great  improvement  should  take  place. 

Sugar  production  is  carried  on  in  Cuba  much  as  it  is  in  Louisiana 
(p.  104).  After  the  cane  is  cut,  the  sap  is  extracted  and  reduced  to 
brown  sugar  in  sugar 
houses,  and  then  sent 
away  to  be  manu- 
factured into  white 
sugar.  Two  of  the 
products  of  the  sugar 
plantations  are  molas- 
ses, and  rum,  which 
is  made  of  molasses. 

A  second  impor- 
tant crop  is  tobacco, 
for  which  Cuba  is  es- 
pecially noted.  There 
is  one  district,  on 
the  western  end  of  the  island,  where  the  rich,  limy  soil  and  the  climate 
are  peculiarly  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  best  quality  of  tobacco. 
At  Havana  and  other  places  it  is  manufactured  into  cigars,  which 
bring  high  prices  —  the  Havana  cigar  being  considered  the  best  that 
is  made.     What  has  been  said  about  Key  West  in  Florida? 

Upon  the  hill  slopes  much  coffee  is  produced,  and  some  tea  and  cocoa. 
The  coffee  plant  not  only  requires  a  good  soil,  but  must  be  grown  in  the 


Fig.  166. 
A  Cuban  ox  team. 


182 


NORTH   AMERICA 


shade  of  trees.  Spices,  including  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and  ginger,  are 
products  of  the  West  Indies,  also  pepper,  cardamom,  vanilla,  and  pimento 
or  allspice.  Such  fruits  as  bananas,  oranges,  limes,  pineapples,  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  also  produced;  but,  because  of  the  poor  market,  in  small  quantities. 

In  the  future  much  more  attention  will 
doubtless  be  paid  to  fruit  raising.  In- 
deed, both  Cuba  and  Porto  Eico  will 
probably  now  become  not  only  winter 
gardens,  supplying  fruit  and  vegetables 
to  the  United  States,  but  also  important 
winter  resorts. 

The  United  States  has  been  able 
to  raise  almost  all  products  of  the 
soil  that  we  have  required,  with  the 
exception  of  the  tropical  and  semi- 
tropical  crops,  such  as  tea,  rice,  cof- 
fee, sugar,  spices,  and  tropical  fruits  ; 
and  our  newly  acquired  islands  are 
capable  of  supplying  even  these. 

The  Inhabitants.  —  Portions  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  densely 
populated,  although  in  Cuba's  war 
with  Spain  thousands  upon  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  were  killed 
in  battle  or  starved  to  death.  Property  has  been  destroyed,  and 
the  island  devastated  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  be  many  years 
before  a  full  tide  of  prosperity  returns. 

Many  of  the  natives  are  of  mixed  blood.  The  aborigines  did  not 
prove  good  slaves  to  their  Spanish  conquerors,  and  negro  slaves 
were  brought  from  Africa.  Therefore,  while  pure-blooded  Span- 
iards are  numerous,  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico  are  negroes,  either  full  blooded  or  half-breeds.  The  Spanish 
have  kept  these  natives  very  poor  and  densely  ignorant ;  but  they 
are  capable  of  advancement  under  proper  guidance,  and  this,  it  is 
hoped,  they  will  receive  from  the  United  States. 

Cities.  —  Owing  largely  to  an  entire  lack  of  coal  and  to  the 
policy  of  the  Spaniards,  there  has  been  very  little  manufacturing ; 
but  nevertheless  there  are  several  important  cities,  principally  along 
the  coast,  at  points  where  there  are  remarkably  fine  harbors.  The 
largest  of  these  is  Havana  in  Cuba,  a  city  of  235,000  inhabitants, 
and  for  a  long  time  the  center  of  the  Spanish  dominion  in  America. 
Another  large  city  in  Cuba  is  Santiago  de  Cuba,  where  the  Span- 


FiG.  167. 
a  Cuban  boat. 


TERRITORIES    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


188 


ish  ships  were  sunk  in  1898  (see  map,  Fig.  163).     A  third  important 
city,  with  an  excellent  harbor,  is  Matanzas. 

Railway  lines  connect  some  of  these  cities  and  also  reach  out  into 
the  agricultural  districts,  thus  serving  to  bring  the  crops  to  these 
ports  for  shipment. 
However,  many  of 
the  towns  are  not 
connected  by  rail; 
and  since  there  are 
few  good  wagon 
roads,  they  have  al- 
most no  communica- 
tion with  the  out- 
side world,  except  by 
boat. 

The  conditions 
in  Porto  Rico  are 
nearly  the  same  as  in  Cuba,  though  it  is  less  wooded  than  Cuba 
and  more  completely  cultivated.  Along  the  lower  sections,  near 
the  coast,  sugar  and  tobacco  are   raised ;   the  low  mountains   pro- 


FiQ.  168. 
The  harbor  of  Havana. 


-A  a 


Fig.  169. 
Flowing  lava  in  Hawaii,  1881. 


184 


NORTH   AMERICA 


duce  excellent  coffee,  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the 
island ;  and  the  slopes  between  these  two  sections  are  largely 
occupied  by  herds  of  cattle.  As  in  Cuba,  there  are  a  number  of 
coastal  cities,  the  largest  being  Ponce  and  San  Juan,  the  capital. 


The  Hawaiian  Islands  (Fig.  172) 

The  Volcanoes.  —  Far  out  in  the  mid-Pacific,  not  quite  a  third 
of  the  distance  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  is 
a  mountain  chain  fifteen  hundred  miles  long,  most  of  which  lies 
beneath  the  ocean.  From  this  long,  submarine  ridge  there  rise  sev- 
eral volcanic  peaks,  forming  a  chain  of  islands,  known  as  the  Sand- 
wich or  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  largest  is  Hawaii,  which  is  nearly 
as  large  as  Connecticut. 

Each  of  the  islands  is  composed  chiefly  of  lava  which  has  been 
erupted  from  within  the  earth.  Two  of  the  large  Hawaiian  volca- 
noes are  still  active,  the  largest,  Mauna  Loa,  extending  nearly  four- 
teen thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  From  the  coast  the  sea  bottom 
descends  so  rapidly  that,  within  a  few  miles  of  the  shore,  a  depth  of 
eighteen  thousand  feet  is  found.     Therefore,  if  the  water  should  be 

removed,  a  moun- 
tain peak  would 
be  revealed  rising 
nearly  thirty-two 
thousand  feet 
above  its  base  — 
a  loftier  moun- 
tain than  any 
known  on  the 
land. 

Climate.  — 
The  latitude  of 
the  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands (Fig.  511) 
is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico. 
Being  in  the  midst  of  the  broad  Pacific,  and  therefore  surrounded 
by  warm  ocean  water,  the  climate  near  sea  level  is  warm  and  won- 
derfully equable.     From  day  to  night,  and  even  from  summer  to 


Fig,  170. 
Executive  Building,  Honolulu. 


TEEBIT0RIE8    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


186 


winter,  the  thermometer  varies  only  a  few  degrees.  As  in  the 
West  Indies,  the  northeast  winds  blow  steadily  and  bring  an  abun- 
dance of  rain  to  the  windward  northeastern  slopes.  The  opposite 
or  leeward  slopes  are  very  much  drier,  and  in  places  even  arid. 


Industries.  —  The  Hawaiian  Islanders  are  an  intelligent  race, 
resembling  the  natives  of  other  Pacific  islands.  Since  white  men 
brought  in  new  methods  of  agriculture,  the  larger  islands  have 
become  fairly  productive,  the  principal  crop  being  sugar.  Coffee, 
tropical  fruits,  and  rice  (Fig.  171)  are  other  products,  the  last 
being  cultivated  by  the  Chinese,  who  make  up  a  large  part  of  the 
foreign  population.  There  are  also  many  Japanese,  Portuguese, 
and  Americans.  The  chief  market  has  been  the  United  States, 
especially  San  Francisco.  In  fact,  these  islands  formed  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  food  supply  for  the  early  California  mines. 

The  white  men's  interests  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  led  to  a  revolu- 
tion some  years  ago,  by  which  these  men  took  control  of  affairs  from 
the  native  queen,  set  up  an  independent  government,  and  offered 
themselves  to  the  United  States  as  a  territory.  After  some  delay 
this  offer  was  accepted. 

While  some  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  large 
numbers  are  gathered  in  small  villages  along  the  seacoast.  There 
are  only  two  cities,  Hono- 
lulu on  the  island  of  Oahu, 
and  HiLO  on  Hawaii. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  as 
a  Coaling  Station.  —  During  the 
war  with  Spain  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  were  of  importance  to 
the  United  States  as  a  coaling 
station  for  ships  bound  to  the 
Philippine  Islands.  The  dis- 
tance from  San  Francisco  to  the 
Philippines  is  somewhat  more 
than  seven  thousand  miles.  If  we  wish  to  send  a  warship  there  from  the 
Pacific  coast,  it  is  quite  necessary  that  it  should  find  a  place  on  the  way  at 
which  it  could  obtain  coal.  Such  a  ship  might  carry  perhaps  eight  hun- 
dred tons  of  coal ;  but  as  it  may  burn  from  sixty  to  seventy  tons  a  day, 
this  would  last  less  than  two  weeks,  while  the  journey  across  would  require 
more  than  three  weeks.  Therefore  the  government  needs  a  place  where  it 
can  store  large  quantities  of  coal,  perhaps  as  much  as  ten  or  twenty- 
five  thousand  tons,  to  be  used  in  case  of  need.     All  large  naval  powers 


Fig.  171. 
Planting  rice  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 


186  NORTH    AMERICA 

need  coaling  stations  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean.     Great  Britain,  the 
greatest  power  upon  the  sea,  has  them  scattered  all  over  the  world. 


*  Guam  and  Samoa 

For  a  number  of  years  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  England  had 
control  over  the  Samoan  Islands  (Fig.  172)  ;  but  this  arrangement  did  not 
prove  satisfactory,  and  now  Tutuila,  one  of  the  islands,  is  owned  by  the 
United  States.  This  tiny  island  is  of  little  value  to  us  except  for  the 
coaling  station  at  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago  (Fig.  172).  The  natives  are  of 
the  same  race  as  those  of  the  other  islands  of  the  open  Pacific.  They  are 
splendidly  developed  physically,  and  manage  a  boat  and  swim  so  well  that 
they  are  almost  as  much  at  home  in  the  water  as  on  land.  The  principal 
products  are  cocoanuts  and  cotton,  and  the  chief  city  is  Apia,  on  Upolu, 
which  belongs  to  Germany. 

In  consequence  of  the  war  with  Spain,  we  obtained  the  island  of  Ouam 
(Figs.  172  and  511),  one  of  the  Ladrones  or  Bobbers'  Islands,  some  distance 
east  of  the  Philippines.  These  islands,  the  loftiest  peaks  of  a  submarine 
mountain  chain,  were  first  seen  by  Magellan,  who  was  later  killed  by  the 
natives  of  the  Philippines.  Guam,  the  largest  of  the  Ladrones,  reaches 
an  elevation  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  it  is 
so  small,  and  so  far  away,  that  it  also  is  of  little  service  to  us  except  as  a 
coaling  station  for  vessels. 


The  Philippine  Islands 

PURCHASED   FROM   SPAIN   IN   1898   FOR   120,000,000 

Physiography.  —  This  group  of  islands,  or  archipelago^  consists 
of  several  thousand  separate  islands,  many  of  which  are  very  small. 
The  largest,  Luzon,  is  about  the  size  of  Kentucky,  and  the  second, 
Mindanao,  is  almost  as  large.  Like  the  West  Indies  and  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands,  the  Philippines  are  portions  of  mountain  chains  in 
the  sea.  They  form  part  of  a  still  greater  chain,  reaching  north- 
ward to  the  Japanese  Islands  and  beyond. 

Throughout  the  archipelago  earthquakes  are  common  and  sometimes 
very  destructive  to  property  and  to  life ;  for  instance,  the  earthquake  of 
1863  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Manila.  The  earth  is  in  an  almost  constant 
state  of  tremor,  though  most  of  the  shocks  are  so  slight  that  they  are 
detected  only  by  the  aid  of  delicate  instruments.  In  addition  to  earth- 
quakes there  have  at  times  been  destructive  volcanic  eruptions.  Some  of 
the  volcano  cones  of  the  Philippines  attain  a  height  of  "8000  to  10,000  feet. 

While  parts  of  the  islands  are  mountainous  and  still  covered  by  for- 


HHHHHBi 

HHBHII 

m 

MjjL 

/ 

1 

31 

1 

^^^^■1 

mh^ 

1 

PPi  <"  'il^^B 

i 

^^p=="?-— 

"■^■^^ 

■   ^^^pBH 

li%^^ 

"^■^■1 

Ki^^^^HH 

AjHH^^^^^^H 

^1 

^9 

^^^^^^k' 

M 

^^^^^^^H 

Fig.  173  (upper). 
A  Philippine  house.    Notice  that  it  is  built  so  as  to  raise  it  above  the  damp  ground. 

Fig.  174  (lower). 
Natives  and  a  water  buffalo  working  in  a  sugar-cane  field. 


TERRITORIES    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


187 


ests,  there  are  many  valleys  that  have  been  cleared  for  farming.  In  these 
the  soil  is  usually  deep  and  fertile,  being  formed  by  the  decay  of  lavas, 
limestones,  and  other  rocks  rich  in  plant  food. 

The  Pacific  cable,  connecting  the  Philippine  Islands  with  the  United 
States,  was  completed  July  4,  1903 ;  the  final  section  of  the  cable  from 
Manila  to  Shanghai  was  finished  April  11, 1906.  The  cable,  which  varies 
in  size  from  one  inch  in  diameter  in  deep  water  to  two  inches  at  the  shore 
ends,  is  9111  miles  long,  is  laid  at  an  average  depth  of  over  3^  miles,  and 
extends  from  San  Francisco  to  Shanghai,  China,  by  way  of  Honolulu, 
Midway  Islands,  Guam,  and  Manila,  affording  rapid  communication 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Pacific  possessions,  and  being  of 
the  greatest  commercial  value. 

Climate.  —  Besides  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  the  Philippines 
are  visited  by  terrific  tropical  storms  or  hurricanes  which  are  called 
typhoons.  Commencing  in  the  heated  belt  near  the  equator,  they 
develop  intense  energy,  and  move  slowly  off  into  the  temperate 
latitudes.  They  are  accompanied  by  a  terrific  downpour  of  rain  and 
by  winds  so  violent 
that  houses  are  torn 
to  pieces  and  trees 
dragged  out  by  their 
roots.  During  these 
storms  much  prop- 
erty is  destroyed,  and 
many  lives  are  often 
lost. 

As  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  climate  of 
the  Philippines  is 
that  of  the  tropics  — 
always  warm,  and 
sometimes  very  hot,  especially  at  a  distance  from  the  sea.  They 
have  a  heavy  rainfall,  the  year  being  divided  into  the  dry  and  rainy 
seasons.  The  former  comes  during  the  winter  months,  the  latter 
in  the  summer.  The  dry  period  lasts  while  the  winds  blow  from 
the  northeast,  and  then  the  fields  often  become  parched  and  cracked, 
and  the  roads  very  dusty.  In  the  summer,  however,  the  winds 
change  to  the  southeast,  and  as  they  blow  from  the  warm,  humid 
equatorial  belt,  they  deluge  the  islands  with  rain  to  such  an  extent 
that  much  of  the  country  becomes  a  swamp,  and  travel  is  almost 
impossible.     The  showers  are  local ;  and  while  a  heavy  downpour 


Fig.  175. 
Philippine  natives  and  the  domesticated  buffalo. 


188  NORTH    AMERICA 

occurs  in  one  place,  a  short  distance  away  on  the  leeward  slopes 
there  may  be  no  rain. 

The  natives  have  domesticated  a  native  wild  animal,  the  water  buffalo 
(Fig.  175),  which  is  so  accustomed  to  the  mud  that  it  may  be  driven 
about  during  the  wet  season.  This  draft  animal  is  of  great  use,  especially 
in  the  rice  fields,  which  are  kept  wet  during  the  growing  season.  The 
buffalo  prefers  wet  walking  to  dry,  and,  in  fact,  must  have  a  daily  plunge 
in  the  mud  and  water. 


Because  of  this  damp  climate,  the  Philippine  houses  are  so  built 
that  the  lower  story  is  used  for  storage,  as  a  cellar  is  in  our  coun- 
try. This  raises  the  inhabited  part  of  the  house  above  the  damp 
ground  (Fig.  173). 

Resources  and  Industries.  —  Owing  to  the  tropical  warmth  and 
dampness  and  to  the  excellent  soil,  the  uncultivated  parts  of  the 
islands  are  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest,  containing  many 
valuable  woods.  As  in  other  tropical  forests,  there  are  immense 
numbers  of  animals,  especially  insects,  serpents,  and  beautiful  birds. 
Among  the  serpents  are  the  huge  python  and  the  deadly  cobra  de 
capello.  There  are  also  deer,  apes,  wild  hogs,  wild  buffalo,  huge  bats, 
ind  man-eating  crocodiles. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  number  from  eight  to  ten 
millions,  about  one  half  of  whom  are  civilized ;  but  there  are  still 
many  savages  on  some  of  the  islands,  especially  in  the  dense  forests. 
Two  very  different  races  occupy  the  islands,  —  the  aborigines  and 
the  Malays.  The  former,  a  race  of  small,  dark-skinned  savages,  are 
called  Negritos^  a  Spanish  word  meaning  little  negroes.  They  have 
been  gradually  forced  to  retreat  to  the  forests  by  the  more  powerful 
and  intelligent  Malays.  Besides  the  Negritos,  the  various  tribes  of 
Malays,  and  the  half-breeds,  many  Chinese  traders  and  Spaniards 
live  on  the  islands. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  Spaniards,  the  more  civilized  tribes,  whom 
Magellan  found  in  a  savage  state,  have  cleared  the  land  and  have  reached 
a  fairly  high  grade  of  civilization.  Their  wants  are  few,  and  very  little 
work  suffices  to  keep  them  supplied  with  what  they  need.  Cocoanuts 
and  bananas  are  easily  obtained,  and  rice,  yams,  and  other  plant  foods 
may  be  raised  with  very  little  effort.  There  is,  therefore,  no  special  reason 
for  working  hard ;  and,  in  fact,  in  that  climate  hard  work  is  almost  im- 
possible. 

The  riches  of  the  forest  are  scarcely  utilized  at  all.     Among  the  valu- 


TERRITORIES    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


189 


able  woods  are  ebony,  the  rubber  tree  from  which  gutta  percha  is  obtained, 
and  a  palm  from  the  sap  of  which  alcohol  may  ba  made.  Cinnamon,  cloves, 
and  pepper  also  grow  there. 

The  mineral  resources  appear  to  be  extensive,  although  almost  entirely 
undeveloped,  since  the  Spaniards  never  encouraged  mining  there.  Gold 
is  known  to  exist  in  Luzon,  and  silver,  coal,  petroleum,  marble,  and  sulphur 
also  occur. 


Aside  from  plant  products  consumed  at  home,  some  cocoa,  coffee, 
sugar  (Fig.  174),  and  tobacco  are  raised  for  export,  the  latter  being 
manufactured  into  cigars  at  Manila.  This  is  almost  the  sole  manu- 
facturing of  importance,  and  the  inhabitants  depend  upon  Europe 
and  America  for  all  but  the  very  simplest  materials,  which  they 
themselves  produce. 

Hemp  is  the  best-known  export  of  these  islands,  which  supply 
the  world  with  the  fiber  used  in  making  the  better  grades  of  Manila 
rope.  Hemp  is  made  from  the  fiber  of  a  wild  plantain,  which  so 
closely  resembles  the  banana  that  an  inexperienced  person  cannot 
easily  tell  the  two  apart.  In  order  to  obtain  the  fiber,  the  plant  is 
cut  and  allowed  to  wilt  for  a  short  time,  then  drawn  between  a  block 
of  wood  and  a  knife,  in 
order  to  scrape  the  pulp 
away.  The  fiber  is  spread 
for  several  hours  in  the 
sun  to  dry,  and  then 
pressed  into  bales  for  ship- 
ping. Since  the  work  is 
crudely  done  by  natives, 
without  the  aid  of  machin- 
ery, about  40  per  cent  of 
the  fiber  is  wasted. 

Fiu.   170 

The  castor  bean  grows 
wild  on  many  of  the  islands, 
and  its  oil  is  extracted  for 
many  local  purposes.  Cocoanut  palms  also  flourish,  and  great  rafts  of 
cocoanuts  are  shipped  down  the  rivers  to  the  sea.  From  this  nut  an 
oil  is  made  that  is  used  in  lamps  and  sometimes  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
substitute  for  lard.  Much  of  the  dried  meat  of  the  nut,  called  copra,  is 
shipped  to  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  be  used  in  soap  making. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  plants  of  the  island  is  the  rattan,  which 
is  put  by  the  natives  to  a  thousand  uses,  such  as  making  ropes,  houses, 
canoes,  frames,  carts,  beds,  and  chairs.     Many  of  the  natives  make  a  liv- 


A  Philippine  lumber  yard,  where  bamboo  is  the  lumber. 
Compare  this  with  Figures  40  and  140. 


190  NORTH   AMERICA 

ing  by  splitting  and  marketing  the  cane.  The  bamboo  is  also  of  great 
value,  being  considered  indispensable  by  the  natives  (Fig.  176).  This 
plant  grows  from  one  inch  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  five 
to  seventy  feet  in  height.  It  is  used  in  making  the  frames,  sides,  and 
even  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  also  rafts,  boats,  agricultural  implements, 
bows,  bowstrings,  arrows,  spoons,  forks,  and  many  other  articles. 

Under  Spanish  rule  the  people  of  the  Philippines  were  greatly 
oppressed,  and  the  industries  were  only  partly  developed.  Large 
portions  of  the  islands  were  left  in  a  wild  state;  and  even  in  the 
best-settled  regions  little  attempt  was  made  to  develop  the  resources. 
The  islands  are  able  to  produce  not  only  quantities  of  sugar,  rice, 
tobacco,  coffee,  and  cocoa,  but  also  much  more  hemp  than  at  present. 
What  has  been  said  about  the  valuable  forest  and  mineral  products? 

There  is  a  promising  future  in  the  proper  development  of  all  the 
resources  of  these  islands,  and  the  civilized  natives  are  able  to  help 
in  the  work.  Many  of  them  are  educated  and  cultivated,  living  in 
excellent  homes  and  surrounded  by  luxuries.  In  religion,  most  of 
the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  which  was  early 
introduced  by  the  Spaniards.  However,  the  natives  of  the  Sulu 
Islands,  called  Moros,  are  Mohammedans.  These  Moros  are  ruled 
by  a  Sultan  under  the  general  guidance  of  the  United  States. 

Cities.  —  In  the  Philippine  group  there  are  many  cities  having  a 
population  of  more  than  ten  thousand.  However,  there  is  at  present 
only  one  city  of  great  importance  in  the  archipelago,  namely,  Ma- 
nila, on  the  island  of  Luzon.  It  is  situated  upon  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  was  for  a  long  time  the  center  of  the  Spanish  government 
in  the  Philippines. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Alaska:  Questions.  —  (1)  From  whom  was  Alaska  obtained?  How? 
(2)  Describe  the  climate.  (3)  Name  and  locate  the  capital.  (4)  What  are  the 
surface  features?  (5)  Locate  the  Muir  Glacier.  (6)  Tell  about  the  volcanoes. 
(7)  What  kinds  of  fish  are  found?  (8)  Describe  whaling.  (9)  Tell  about  the 
seals :  —  where  found ;  habits ;  efforts  to  protect  them ;  their  value.  (10)  Describe 
mining  in  Alaska  :  —  minerals  found;  location  of  the  gold  mines. 

Suggestions. —  (11)  Collect  some  whalebone.  (12)  Collect  pictures  of 
Alaska.  (13)  Find  out  what  people  thought  when  the  purchase  of  Alaska  was 
being  considered.  (14)  Try  to  find  some  one  who  has  been  in  Alaska,  and  have 
him  tell  you  about  the  country.  (15)  How  does  the  area  of  Alaska  compare  with 
that  of  the  United  States  proper?  (16)  Measure  the  length  of  the  Yukon,  and 
compare  it  with  the  Mackenzie.     (17)    Draw  an  outline  map  of  Alaska. 


TERRITORIES    AND    DEPENDENCIES 


191 


Cuba  and  Porto  Rico :  Questions.  —  (18)  Name  the  principal  islands  of  the 
West  Indies.  (19)  Tell  about  their  relief ;  their  climate.  (20)  What  is  the  reason 
for  the  heavy  rains  of  summer?  (21)  What  about  the  forests  and  their  pecul- 
iar products?  (22)  The  minerals?  (23)  Name  the  principal  farm  products. 
(24)    Tell  about  the  inhabitants.     (25)   Why  so  little  manufacturing? 

Suggestions.  —  (26)  Estimate  the  length  and  the  average  breadth  of  Cuba. 
(27)  How  do  its  two  leading  cities  compare  in  size  with  the  two  largest  in  Penn- 
sylvania ?  (28)  What  products  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  also  raised  in  the 
United  States?  Where?  (29)  State  some  advantage  that  Cuba  enjoys  over 
Louisiana  in  the  production  of  sugar.  (30)  In  what  respects  are  the  inhabitants 
similar  to  those  of  Mexico?  (31)  How  is  our  control  of  these  islands  liable  to 
prove  of  benefit  to  us  ?     (32)   Make  a  sketch  map  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands :  Questions.  —  (33)  Where  are  the  islands  ?  (34)  How 
have  they  been  formed?  (35)  Tell  about  the  volcanoes.  (36)  About  the  climate. 
(37)  Name  the  leading  products.  (38)  The  principal  cities.  (39)  How  did  the 
islands  come  into  our  possession?     (40)    Of  what  use  are  they  to  us  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (41)  Why  should  you  expect  much  the  same  products  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  as  in  Cuba?  (42)  Why  is  not  the  summer  very  hot  in  this 
tropical  region  ?  (43)  What  city  on  the  eastern  coast  should  be  associated  with 
San  Francisco  as  important  for  refining  sugar?  (44)  Explain  the  presence  of 
many  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  these  islands. 

The  Philippine  Islands  :  Questions.  —  (45)  Name  the  two  largest  islands. 
(46)  How  have  the  islands  been  formed?  (47)  Tell  about  the  earthquakes. 
(48)  The  soil.  (49)  The  rivers.  (50)  About  the  typhoons,  and  the  dry  and 
rainy  seasons.  (51)  What  about  Philippine  houses?  Draft  animals?  (52)  Tell 
about  the  forests  and  wild  animals.  (53)  About  the  native  inhabitants. 
(54)    About  the  farm  products.     (55)   About  the  Pacific  Cable. 

Suggestions.  —  (56)  Compare  the  latitude  of  the  Philippine  islands  with 
that  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  (57)  Tell  about  Dewey's 
capture  of  Manila.  (58)  Name  the  dependencies  of  the  United  States.  (59) 
How  did  we  obtain  each  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


Fig,  177. 
Sitka  Harbor  and  Mt.  Edgecomb,  Alaska. 


XL    COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 
Canada  and  Newfoundland 

As  we  have  learned,  the  northwestern  extremity  of  North  Amer- 
ica is  in  possession  of  the  United  States ;  but  almost  all  of  the  re- 
maining land  north  of  our  country  belongs  to  Canada. 

History.  —  While  the  British  were  founding  the  thirteen  colonies, 
the  French  occupied  the  coast  of  eastern  Canada  and  made  settle- 
ments along  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  as  at  Quebec  and  Montreal. 
Even  now  four  out  of  every  five  persons  in  the  Province  of  Quebec 
«peak  French  as  their  mother  tongue.  The  French  and  English  were 
often  at  war ;  but  finally  England,  aided  by  her  colonies,  acquired 
control  of  all  the  French  possessions  north  of  the  United  States, 
except  the  small  islands  of  Miquelon  and  St.  Pierre^  which  are  still 
retained  by  the  French  as  fishing  stations. 

After  the  Revolutionary  War,  Canada  still  remained  in  the  pos- 
.^ession  of  Great  Britain.  There  were  at  first  several  colonies,  or 
provinces^  with  separate  governments,  though  all  were  under  the 
control  of  Great  Britain ;  but  in  1867  a  union  was  formed  called  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  Each  of  the  nine  provinces  —  Nova  Scotia, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba, 
Alberta,  Saskatchewan,  and  British  Columbia  —  now  has  a  govern- 
ment of  its  own,  as  our  states  have ;  but  by  their  union  they  also 
have  a  central  government  with  the  capital  at  Ottawa,  which  corre- 
sponds to  our  capital  at  Washington. 

Besides  these  provinces,  there  are  the  Yukon  Territory,  the  district 
of  Keewatin,  and  also  a  number  of  unorganized  territories,  or  territories 
without  a  regularly  organized  government.  Most  of  the  latter  are  practi- 
cally a  wilderness  and  of  little  importance  at  present.  Their  names  will 
be  found  on  the  map  (Fig.  178). 

Newfoundland  has  refused  to  join  this  federation,  so  that,  while 
still  a  province  of  Great  Britain,  it  has  no  connection  with  Canada. 
Under  the  government  of  Newfoundland  is  included  not  only  the  island, 
but  also  the  east  coast  of  Labrador. 

108 


0 
-    ~-   i-i    -.  cu   w  »•,  O  O 

'O  5  3      «3      =s  ^ 

M   CO         »-H  -J--   Si/   ra   jr  s.  ^ 

l5£i2::a§s 


Fig.  179. 
Map  showing  the  location  of  Montreal  and  Quebec. 


Fig.  180. 
A  view  of  Montreal  from  the  mountain  back  of  city  —  the  St.  Lawrence  in  the  distance. 


COUNTRIES    NORTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATXM 


193 


As  in  the  case  of  the  United  States,  the  early  ^settlements  in  Canada 
were  made  in  the  east,  though  westward  migration  has  now  opened  up 
not  merely  the  interior,  but  even  the  mountainous  western  part.  At 
present,  the  population  is  over  five  millions,  more  than  one  fourth  of  whom 
are  French. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  The  climate  of  southern  Canada  is 
similar  to  that  of  northern  United  States,  though  of  course  slightly 
cooler.  Its  physiography  is  nearly  the  same  also;  and  since  the 
glacier,  which  spread  over  northeastern  United  States,  had  its  origin 
in  Canada,  the  effects  are  found  there,  as  here.  Lakes,  falls,  and 
rapids  abound,  and  the  soil  is  made  of  glacial  drift. 

The  surface  of  eastern  Canada  is  much  like  the  surface  of  New- 
England  ;  and,  as  in  New  England,  there  is  much  beautiful  scenery. 
That  section  of  Canada 
which  lies  north  of  Ohio 
and  New  York  is  more 
level,  like  those  states. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant farming  regions 
in  the  Dominion.  Far- 
ther west,  north  of 
Dakota  and  Montana, 
are  broad  plains  (Fig. 
185),  arid  in  the  western 
part,  and  increasing  in 
elevation  to  the  very  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
After  crossing  these 
plains,  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  which  extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
coast,  follows  the  valleys  among  the  mountains,  and  climbs  to  the 
passes  amidst  canyons,  glaciers,  and  snow-capped  peaks  (Fig.  181). 
Name  the  mountains  (Fig.  178).  The  scenery  of  this  region  is 
wonderfully  grand  and  picturesque,  and  the  railway  passes  through 
the  midst  of  it.  A  portion  of  this  wonderland  has  been  set  aside  as  a 
national  park  by  the  Canadian  government. 

The  headwaters  of  the  Yukon  River,  mentioned  under  Alaska  (p.  180), 
are  in  Canada ;  and  farther  east  than  this  is  the  Mackenzie  River,  one  of 
the  largest  on  the  continent.  It  is  2000  miles  long.  What  three  large 
lakes  drain  into  the  Mackenzie  ?     Why  is  that  river  of  little  use  for  uavi- 


Fig.  181. 

A  view  among  the  mountains  of  British  Columbia, 
through  which  the  Canadian  Pacific  passes. 


194 


NORTH   AMERICA 


gation  ?  What  other  large  Canadian  rivers  drain  into  northern  waters  ? 
How  would  they  be  more  useful  if  they  drained  southward,  as  the  Missis- 
sippi does  ? 

Canada  shares  with  the  United  States  the  privileges  of  navigation 
on  all  the  Great  Lakes,  with  one  exception.  Which  is  it?  In  addi- 
tion to  these  great  waterways,  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  is  entirely  in 
Canada ;  but  on  account  of  the  severe  winters  this  is  not  so  great  an 
advantage  as  might  at  first  appear.    Why  ? 

There  are  numerous  rapids  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  over  which  vessels 
cannot  pass;  but  large  ship  canals  have  been  built  around  these. 
Now,  therefore,  all  but  the  large  ocean  steamers  are  able  to  go  from 
the  open  ocean  to  the  western  part  of  Lake  Superior,  a  distance  of 
twenty-four  hundred  miles.  In  this  respect  the  Canadian  route  has 
a  great  advantage  over  the  Erie  Canal  route,  upon  which  only  small 
canal  boats  can  go.  However,  there  is  work  in  progress  to  deepen 
the  Erie  Canal  so  that  vessels  of  1000  tons  can  pass  through  it. 

Although  southern  Canada  closely  resembles  the  United  States  in 
climate  and  physiography,  toward  the  north  the  country  rapidly  grows 
colder,  until,   in   the   extreme   northern   portion,   the    climate   is   frigid. 

There  the  sea  is  frozen  over  in  winter, 
and  in  summer  it  is  covered  with 
floating  ice  (Figs.  265  and  266).  Even 
in  midsummer  large  patches  of  snow 
are  seen  upon  the  land. 

Lumbering. — The   forests  which 
cover  northern  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire,  and  Vermont  extend   into 
the    hilly  and    mountainous    section 
of     New    Brunswick    and    southern 
Quebec.     In  fact,  from  there  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific,  sweeping  north- 
ward   around     the    vast    plains    of 
Manitoba,  this  forest   tract  is  from 
two    to   three   hundred   miles  wide, 
and  is  estimated  to  include  fully  a 
million    square  miles.     In    the   east 
the  principal  trees  are  spruce,  balsam  fir,  pines,  and  maples,  while  in 
the  west  are  spruces,  mammoth  cedars,  sometimes  sixty  feet  in  cir- 
cumference, and  the  Douglas  fir,  which  in  some  instances  attains  a 


Fig.  182. 

A  winter  scene  in  the  woods  of  New 
Brunswick. 


COUNTRIES    NORTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  195 

height  of  three  hundred  feet.  This  forest  is  so  nearly  in  its  primi- 
tive state  that  there  are  few  parts  of  the  continent  where  the 
hunting  for  large  game  is  so  good. 

At  present  the  woods  of  Canada  are  one  of  its  greatest  sources  of 
wealth ;  the  lumbering  industry  is  so  important  that  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  sawmills  at  the  rapids  on  the  streams,  and  even  in  the  great 
cities.  Among  the  latter,  Ottawa,  Toronto,  and  Montreal  are 
important,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber  into  such  articles 
as  doors,  blinds,  barrels,  and  furniture. 

Fishing.  —  It  was  the  excellent  fishing  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Canada  that  first  attracted   the  French  to  America,  and  fishing  is 


:t=U 


Boats  setting  nets  to  catch  salmon  off  the  coast  of  British  Columbia. 

still  an  important  industry  in  Canada.  Fully  fifty  thousand  people 
in  Newfoundland  and  the  eastern  provinces,  especially  Nova  Scotia 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  are  engaged  in  cod  fishing.  One  of  the 
best  fishing  ports  is  Yarmouth  in  Nova  Scotia,  although  a  great  deal 
of  fishing  is  carried  on  from  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  and  many  other  places.  Inland  fishing  is  also  im- 
portant, for  the  streams  and  lakes  still  abound  in  trout,  pickerel, 
whitefish,  bass,  and  salmon. 

There   is   much   fishing   also  on  the  west  coast,  especially  for 
salmon.     Great  numbers  of  salmon   come   to  the  Canadian  rivers 


196 


NORTH  AMERICA 


every  year  to  spawn,  pushing  their  way  upstream,  in  spite  of  many 
natural  obstacles.  Sometimes,  in  order  to  get  beyond  waterfalls, 
they  must  leap  several  feet  into  the  air  (Fig.  155),  and  it  is  inter- 
esting to  watch  the  skill  with  which  they  are  able  to  spring  out  of 
the  water  and  land  in  the  foaming  torrent  at  the  crest  of  the  falls. 


Fig.  184. 
Hundreds  of  salmon  in  a  cannery. 


Sometimes  they  fail,  but  returning  to  the  task,  they  try  again  and 
again  until  successful.  It  is  believed  that  a  salmon  always  returns 
to  the  same  river. 

While  traveling  up  the  streams  they  are  easily  caught  in  nets  set 
across  the  current  (Fig.  183),  or  by  dip  nets  in  the  hands  of  fisher- 
men (Fig.  155),  or  sometimes  by  salmon  wheels  (Fig.  156).  Im- 
mense numbers  of  salmon  are  canned  in  western  Canada  (Fig.  184) 
as  well  as  along  the  Columbia  River  and  in  Alaska. 

Sealing.  —  We  have  already  learned  (p.  178)  about  the  seal  fishing  in 
Alaska.  Seals  are  also  found  on  the  eastern  side  of  Canada,  but  their  fur 
is  of  little  value.  It  is  the  layer  of  fat,  or  blubber,  just  beneath  the  skin, 
that  is  chiefly  sought,  because  it  is  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  oil.  The 
Labrador  seals  rear  their  young  on  the  fields  of  floating  ice  that  drift  south- 
ward in  the  Labrador  current  (Fig.  266).  To  reach  these  animals,  strongly 
built  steamers  (Fig.  265)  start  out  from  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  in  the 
early  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ice  has  begun  to  break  up  enough  for  ships  to 
push  their  way  through.  Upon  reaching  a  group  of  seals,  scores  of  men 
rush  out  upon  the  ice  and  kill  as  many  as  possible  (Fig.  190) ;  then  they 
return  to  each  body  to  remove  the  skin  and  blubber. 


COUNTRIES    NORTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


197 


Agriculture  and  Ranching.  —  What  was  said  about  the  agricul- 
ture and  grazing  of  northern.  United  States  applies  quite  fully  to 
Canada.  The  warm,  damp  winds  from  the  Pacific  render  the  climate 
of  southern  British  Columbia  much  like  that  of  Washington  (p.  150). 

Farther  east,  especially  on  the  plains  at  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  the  provinces  of  Alberta  and  Assiniboia,  the  climate 
was  at  first  thought  to  be  too  arid  for  farming,  but  large  areas  have 


Fia.  185. 
Sheep  on  the  plains  of  western  Canada. 


been  found  to  be  suited  to  grains.  Immense  herds  of  sheep  (Fig. 
185)  and  cattle  are  reared  on  these  broad  plains,  in  the  midst  of  which 
are  several  towns.  The  largest  of  these  is  Calgary,  which  has  a 
population  of  about  four  thousand. 

In  Manitoba  the  climate  begins  to  be  more  favorable  for  agricul- 
ture, and  the  wheat  fields  found  in  Minnesota  and  eastern  Dakota 
continue  across  the  boundary  far  up  into  that  province.  Although 
the  winters  are  long  and  exceedingly  cold,  the  summers  are  warm,  so 
that  grain,  especially  wheat  (Fig.  186),  oats,  and  barley,  may  be 
raised  there. 

In  the  center  of  this  great  wheat  region  is  the  city  of  Winnipeg, 
in  which  flour  is  manufactured,  as  in  Minneapolis,  and  from  which 
much  grain  is  sent  eastward  by  rail.     This  city  is  situated  on  the 


198 


NORTH    AMERICA 


banks  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  which  empties  into  Lake 
Winnipeg. 

Farther  east,  on  the  peninsula  between  Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  and 
Ontario,  is  found  the  best  farm  land  in  Canada.  This  district  is  in 
the  province  of  Ontario,  the  most  populous  of  the  Canadian  prov- 
inces, which  includes  nearly  half  of  all  the  people  in  Canada.  More 
than  two  thirds  of  the  inhabitants  live  outside  of  the  large  cities. 
What  large  cities  do  you  find  there? 

Although  this  country  is  so  far  north,  its  climate  is  so  modified 
by  the  water  of  the  Great  Lakes,  that  such  crops  as  grapes,  peaches, 


Fig.  186. 
A  wheat  field  in  Manitoba. 

corn,  and  even  tobacco  are  raised.  In  addition,  great  quantities  of 
oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  flax  are  grown 
there.  The  wheat  is  made  into  flour,  mainly  for  home  consumption; 
much  of  the  barley  is  sent  to  the  breweries  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  oats  are  fed  to  stock.  Some  of  the  finest  horses  in  America  are 
reared  in  Ontario.  This  province  is  further  noted  for  its  great 
amount  of  cheese. 


A  strip  of  excellent  farming  country  is  found  practically  the  entire 
length  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Prince  Edward  Island  is  an  island  of  fine  farms  ; 
but  the  people  in  the  towns,  especially  Charlottetown,  the  capital,  are 
engaged  in  commerce  and  fishing.  Portions  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  particularly  along  the  coast  and  in  the  valley  of  the  St.  Joh\. 


COUNTRIES    NORTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  199 

River,  are  also  farming  districts.  In  fact,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  farm- 
ing regions  in  all  of  Canada  is  in  southwestern  Nova  Scotia,  noted  for 
many  crops,  but  especially  for  delicious  apples.  It  was  there  that  the 
French  settlements  were  made  about  which  Longfellow  has  written  in  his 
"  Evangeline  "  ;  and  this  is  often  called  "  The  Land  of  Evangeline." 

Mining.  - —  Gold  and  silver  are  mined  in  British  Columbia,  as  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  farther  south;  but  there  has  been  far  less 
development  of  mining  in  Canada  than  in  the  United  States.  Not 
only  are  there  gold  and  silver,  but  also  lead  and  copper  ores,  building 
stone,  and  coal.  Deposits  of  coal  are  found  both  among  the  moun- 
tains and  in  the  plains  farther  east. 

The  famous  Klondike  region  is  situated  in  the  Yukon  Territory,  near 
the  Alaskan  boundary.  Although  so  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  Dawson  City 
in  the  Klondike  has  rapidly  grown  to  a  city  with  over  10,000  inhabitants. 
The  discovery  of  gold  so  near  the  Alaskan  boundary,  thus  causing  that 
section  suddenly  to  become  of  importance,  gave  rise  to  a  dispute  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada  as  to  the  exact  location  of  the  boundary  lines 
which  was  a  long  time  in  process  of  settlement. 

Gold  and  silver  are  found  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  Nickel  is  mined  in  Ontario,  and  some 
oil  fields  have  been  developed.  A  small  quantity  of  gold  is  obtained  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  in  Newfoundland,  where  some  copper  is  also  mined. 

In  spite  of  the  abundance  of  iron  ore  in  certain  places,  the 
scarcity  of  coal  near  at  hand  has  prevented  Canada  from  producing 
much  iron.  The  coal  fields  of  western  Canada  are  quite  inaccessible 
to  the  eastern  cities,  and  the  coal  beds  of  the  east  have  never  been 
thoroughly  developed.  In  Nova  Scotia,  particularly  on  Cape  Breton 
Island,  there  are  extensive  beds  of  bituminous  coal  of  the  same  origin 
and  age  as  those  of  Pennsylvania.  Recently  great  blast  furnaces 
have  been  erected  at  Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  leading  to  the  develop- 
ment of  an  important  iron  manufacturing  industry  in  the  coal  fields. 
Since  these  mines  are  on  the  very  seacoast,  and  often  on  t^e  shore 
of  excellent  harbors,  the  coal  is  readily  loaded  into  ships ;  but  the 
fact  that  the  St.  Lawrence  is  frozen  in  winter  is  a  great  disadvan  - 
tage,  not  only  to  the  cities  along  the  rivers,  but  also  to  the  coal  mines. 

Trade  Routes  and  Cities.  —  There  appear  to  be  two  outlets  for 
eastern  Canada,  —  one  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  other  by 
way  of  Hudson  Bay.  But  the  latter  is  practically  useless  because 
floating  ice  so  clogs  the  narrow  Hudson  Strait  that  vessels  are  able 
to  pass  through  it  during  only  a  few  weeks  of  summer. 
11— ▲• 


200 


NOBTH   AMERICA 


The  St.  Lawrence  River  suffers  from  the  same  disadvantage, 
though  to  a  much  less  extent ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  ice,  there  are 
dense  fogs  where  the  damp  air  from  the  Gulf  Stream  is  chilled  in 
passing  over  the  cold  Labrador  current  (Fig.  266).  But  in  spite  of 
these  objections,  the  St.  Lawrence  offers  a  much  better  water  route 
than  that  which  has  so  greatly  influenced  the  growth  of  New  York 
(p.  84).  However,  New  York  has  such  a  productive  territory  to 
draw  upon,  that  it  has  grown  far  more  rapidly  than  Montreal. 

The  exact  location  of  Montreal  (Fig.  179),  the  principal  city 
in  Canada,  is  easily  explained.  It  is  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  the 
mouth  of   the  Ottawa  River,  and  just  below  the  Lachine  Rapids 


Fig.  187. 


A  railway  bridge  across  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal,  showing  what  a  very  broad  river  it 
is.  Notice  how  small  the  long  train  of  cars  is  when  compared  to  the  length  of  the 
bridge.    There  is  no  bridge  across  the  river  below  Montreal. 


which  furnish  a  complete  barrier  to  the  passage  of  boats  upstream. 
However,  by  entering  the  canals  mentioned  on  page  194,  river  and 
lake  boats  may  go  up  the  St.  Lawrence;  but  ocean  vessels  must 
stop  at  Montreal.  Thus  goods  from  Europe  may  be  carried  to  Mon- 
treal, fully  a  thousand  miles  from  the  ocean ;  then,  by  transferring 
to  other  ships,  they  may  be  carried  on  canals,  rivers,  and  lakes 
as  far  as  Duluth,  more  than  twelve  hundred  miles  farther  inland. 
By  this  means,  and  by  railways  also,  raw  products  from  the  north, 
east,  south,  and  west  collect  at  Montreal,  either  to  be  manufactured, 
or  to  be  shipped  farther. 

As  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  manufacturing  in 
Montreal  is  varied,  including  the  making  of  sugar,  boots  and  shoes, 


COUNTRIES    NORTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  201 

cotton  and  woolen  clothing,  India-rubber  goods,  various  steel  and 
iron  products,  cigars,  and  multitudes  of  other  articles. 

Farther  down  the  river  is  Quebec  (Fig.  179),  a  city  especially 
noted  on  account  of  its  historical  associations.  It  was  the  center  of 
the  French  government  in  Canada,  and  for  a  long  time  the  principal 
city.  It  is  situated  upon  a  high  bluff  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  is 
fortified  so  as  to  command  that  river. 

For  a  long  time  Quebec  was  engaged  in  commerce  to  a  greater  extent 
than  Montreal ;  but  the  better  location  of  the  latter  city  has  drawn  the  com- 
merce away  from  Quebec,  as  the  better  situation  of  Boston  drew  the  com- 
merce away  from  Salem  (p.  63).  This  has  been  greatly  aided  by  the 
building  of  ship  canals  and  by  the  dredging  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  thus  deep- 
ening the  channel  so  as  to  admit  great  ocean  vessels  as  far  as  Montreal. 

Quebec  is  one  of  the  quaintest  and  most  interesting  cities  on  the  conti- 
nent. It  resembles  a  bit  of  the  Old  World,  transplanted  to  America,  and  a 
visitor  from  the  United  States  feels  that  he  is  indeed  in  a  foreign  country. 
Besides  trading  and  commerce,  there  is  some  manufacturing  in  Quebec, 
particularly  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes. 

Ottawa,  another  city  of  great  importance,  is  above  Montreal,  at 
some  large  falls  in  the  Ottawa  River.  On  account  of  its  fine  water 
power,  Ottawa  has  much  manufacturing,  and  is  especially  noted  for 
sawmills  and  other  lumber  manufactories.  More  than  that,  being 
the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  it  has  some  beautiful  government  build- 
ings, known  there  as  the  Parliament  Buildings  (Fig.  188). 

The  second  city  in  size  in  Canada  is  Toronto,  located  on  an 


Fia.  188. 
The  Parliament  Buildings,  Ottawa. 


202  NORTH   AMERICA 

excellent  harbor  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  Being  situated  in 
the  midst  of  a  fertile  farming  country,  and  having  water  connection 
with  coal  on  the  east,  and  lumber  and  other  raw  products  on  the 
west,  Toronto  has  become  a  manufacturing  center.  Yet,  in  spite  of 
this,  the  inhabitants  have  paid  great  attention  to  keeping  the  city- 
beautiful,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  cities  on  the  continent. 

Railways  have  been  of  great  importance  in  Canada,  as  in  the 
United  States.  The  greatest  railway  is  the  Canadian  Pacific,  which 
reaches  from  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  entirely  across  Canada,  to 
Vancouver  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  the  shortest  route  from 
England  to  China  and  Japan,  and  much  freight  is  sent  that  way. 
Across  the  strait,  on  the  island  of  Vancouver,  is  the  city  of  Victoria. 
With  what  two  cities  on  Puget  Sound  may  these  be  compared  ?  How 
do  they  compare  in  size  ?     (See  Appendix,  pp.  vi  and  viii). 

One  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Canada,  and  one  that  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  is  Halifax  in  Nova  Scotia,  which  is  about  the  size  of  Mobile 
in  the  United  States.  The  reason  why  it  has  never  become  very 
large  is  easily  seen  on  examining  the  map  (Fig.  178).  There  is 
almost  no  country  behind  it  upon  which  it  can  draw  to  aid  its 
growth.  The  narrow  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  is  not  large  enough 
to  supply  raw  materials  and  manufactured  articles  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  make  it  a  great  shipping  point,  and  the  country  farther  west 
is  too  difficult  to  reach.  It  is  very  much  easier  to  send  western 
goods  to  Montreal  for  shipment  than  to  carry  them  as  far  as  Halifax. 
Here,  almost  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  New  York  and  Montreal,  we 
see  why  certain  cities  flourish  or  fail  to  flourish. 


Islands  North  of  North  America 

These  cold  and  barren  islands  have  almost  no  inhabitants. 
Scattered  colonies  of  Eskimos  are  living  along  the  coast  (Figs.  27, 
189,  and  192),  many  of  them  in  almost  as  primitive  a  manner  as 
when  the  continent  was  discovered. 

These  people  have  adapted  themselves  to  life  in  the  Arctic 
region  in  a  way  that  is  truly  remarkable  (p.  30).  They  have  no 
wood  except  the  occasional  pieces  which  drift  to  their  shores  ;  they 
lack  vegetable  food,  except  the  few  berries  that  are  found  in 
summer ;  and  the  land  supplies  them  with  almost  nothing  beyond  a 
few  birds  and  the  caribou ;  yet  they  are  able  to  exist,  notwithstand- 
ing the  terrible  cold  of  the  long,  dark  winter. 


COUNTRIES    NORTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  203 

From  the  seal,  polar  bear,  walrus,  and  caribou  the  Eskimos  obtain 
not  only  their  food,  but  furs  for  their  clothing,  skins  for  their  tuples^ 
or  summer  tents,  and  blubber  for  their  light  and  fuel.  In  fact,  ex- 
cept for  the  stones  and  snow  used  in  their  winter  homes,  or  igloos 
(Fig.  27),  and  occasional  pieces  of  driftwood,  they  are  dependent 
entirely  upon  animals  for  everything  they  use. 

They  are  a  happy  and  intelligent  people.  The  latter  fact  is 
proved  by  the  kinds  of  boats,  sledges,  and  homes  that  they  have 


Fig.  189. 
Eskimo  women  at  Cape  York,  Greenland.    Behind  them  is  the  summer  tupic,  or  skin  tent. 

invented,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  they  are  able  to  live  at  all  amid 
such  surroundings.  Their  struggle  for  existence  is  probably  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  race.  On  the  west  coast  of  Greenland  they 
are  under  the  control  of  the  Danes,  who  trade  with  them  for  skins, 
walrus  ivory,  blubber,  and  eider  down.  The  most  northern  of  the 
Danish  trading  stations  is  Upernivik,  where  white  men  live  farther 
north  than  any  others  in  the  world.  But  some  uncivilized  Eskimos 
have  homes  still  farther  north. 

Away  from  the  coast  the  greater  part  of  Greenland  is  a  barren 
waste  of  ice  and  snow  —  the  most  absolute  desert  known  in  the 
world  (p.  13).  Its  area  is  about  five  hundred  thousand  square  miles, 
or  more  than  ten  times  as  large  as  New  York  State.     Throughout 


204  NOBTH   AMEBICA 

this  area  there  is  no  living  thing.  In  the  interior,  whei'e  the  eleva- 
tion is  over  ten  thousand  feet,  the  temperature,  even  in  midsummer, 
remains  below  zero,  and  rain  never  falls. 

This  snow  forms  a  great  ice  sheet  which  moves  out  in  all  direc- 
tions toward  the  sea  ;  and  there  the  end  of  the  glacier  rests  in  the 
sea  (Fig.  14)  ;  as  it  pushes  out  into  the  deeper  water,  great  masses  are 
broken  off,  forming  icebergs  (Figs.  14  and  191). 

Review  Questions  and  Topics.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  French  in  Canada. 
(2)  Whatprovincesconstitute  the  Dominion  of  Canada?  Locate  each.  (3)  What 
about  Newfoundland?  (4)  Where  do  the  majority  of  Canadians  live?  Why- 
there  ?  (5)  Compare  southern  Canada  with  the  United  States  in  physiography 
and  climate.  (6)  Where  is  some  of  the  grandest  scenery  ?  (7)  The  best  farm 
land?  (8)  Name  and  locate  the  principal  rivers.  (9)  What  is  the  principal 
water  route?     (10)   Mention  some  of  the  difficulties  of  shipping  by  that  route. 

(11)  Describe  the  climate,  physiography,  and  vegetable  life  in  northern  Canada. 

(12)  In  regard  to  lumbering,  tell  about  the  extent  of  forest ;  kinds  of  trees,  and 
cities  most  noted  for  lumber.  (13)  What  provinces  in  the  east  are  especially 
engaged  in  fishing?  (14)  Name  the  important  fishing  ports.  (15)  Tell  about 
the  salmon  of  the  western  coast.  (16)  Compare  sealing  in  Alaska  with  that  on 
the  coast  of  Labrador.  What  use  is  made  of  the  animals  in  each  case  ?  (17)  Com- 
pare the  agricultural  products  of  Washington  with  those  of  British  Columbia. 
Why  so  similar  ?  (18)  What  is  the  principal  occupation  in  Canada  just  north  of 
Montana?  Why?  (19)  Tell  about  the  province  of  Manitoba.  (20)  Which  is  the 
most  populous  province  in  Canada  ?  Why  ?  (21)  Where  is  "  The  Land  of  Evange- 
line" ?  (22)  What  mineral  products  are  found  in  Canada?  (23)  Locate  the  chief 
mining  regions.  (24)  Where  are  the  leading  coal  mines  ?  (25)  Why  is  Hudson 
Bay  not  an  important  outlet  for  Canada?  (26)  How  does  the  water  route  from 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Port  Arthur  compare  with  that  from  New  York  Bay 
to  Duluth?  Name  particularly  the  advantages  of  each.  (27)  Give  the  reasons 
for  the  location  of  Montreal.  (28)  Mention  the  leading  industries  of  that  city. 
(29)  Tell  about  each  of  the  other  cities  mentioned.  (30)  Tell  about  the  Eskimos. 
(31)    What  is  the  condition  in  Greenland  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Compare  the  area  of  Canada  with  that  of  the  United  States. 
(Appendix,  pp.  i  and  iii.)  (2)  The  population  also.  (Appendix.)  (3)  Collect 
pictures  of  different  kinds  of  trees  in  Canada.  (4)  Tell  the  story  of  "  Evangeline." 
(5)  Lake  Ontario  is  how  much  higher  than  Lake  Erie?  How  are  ships  able  to 
pass  from  one  lake  to  the  other  ?  (6)  Explain  why  Montreal  has  outgrown  Quebec. 
(7)  Why  should  Buffalo  grow  more  rapidly  than  Toronto  ?  (8)  Find  some  one 
who  has  been  in  Canada,  and  have  him  tell  you  what  he  has  seen  there.  (9)  Find 
out  more  about  the  government  of  Canada.  (10)  Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  Eng- 
land to  have  such  a  large,  productive  colony?  (11)  Write  a  story  describing  the 
pleasures  of  the  Eskimos. 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


Fig.  190. 
Newfoundland  sealers  killing  seals  off  the  coast  of  Labrador. 


Fig.  191. 
A  Greenland  Eskimo  kayak. 


Fig.  192. 
A  group  of  Eskimo  children  in  Greenland. 


ios 


XIL     COUNTRIES    SOUTH    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

Mexico 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  Mexico  consists  of  four  areas  of 
different  altitudes.  Near  the  sea  are  coastal  plains  and  other  low- 
lands. In  the  interior,  occupying  a  large  part  of  the  country,  is 
an  arid  plateau  (Fig.  196).      The  third   area    includes  the  slopes 


Fig.  193. 
A  scene  on  the  arid  plateau  of  Mexico.    A  road  bordered  by  cactus. 

between  these  two,  and  the  fourth  consists  of  peaks  and  mountain 
ranges  which  are  a  continuation  of  those  in  southern  United  States. 
Among  the  mountains,  as  in  the  United  States,  there  is  a  number 
of  volcanic  cones,  two  of  them,  Orizaba  and  Popocatepetl,  being 
among  the  highest  peaks  on  the  continent. 

This  part  of  North  America  is  narrow,  and  since  the  north  and 
south  divide  causes  some  of  the  streams  to  flow  eastward  and  the  others 
westward,  there  can  be  no  long  rivers  in  Mexico.     The  steep  slope 

206 


Fig.  195  (upper). 
Interior  of  a  Mexican  home  of  the  poorer  class. 

Fig.  196  (lower). 
View  of  a  part  of  the  arid  plateau  of  Mexico,  with  mountains  in  the  background. 


COUNTRIES    SOUTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  207 

from  the  plateau  to  the  lowland  gives  the  streams  a  rapid  fall,  so 
that  they  have  cut  deep  canyons  in  the  edge  of  the  plateau.  More- 
over, the  arid  climate  of  the  interior  allows  them  little  water.  This 
lack  of  large  navigable  rivers  has  interfered  with  the  development  of 
Mexico.     Can  you  suggest  why  ? 

In  the  main  the  movement  of  the  land  along  the  coasts  of  Mexico 
has  been  upward.  Therefore  the  coast  is  regular  and  there  are 
few  good  harbors.  Two  projections  form  the  peninsulas  of  Yucatan 
and  Lower  California,  the  former  being  a  continuation  of  the  moun- 
tain chain  which  made  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  Porto  Rico.  Lower  Cali- 
fornia is  a  southern  extension  of  the  Coast  Ranges  of  the  United 
States. 

If  the  surface  of  Mexico  were  near  the  sea  level,  the  climate  of 
the  greater  portion  would  be  tropical;  but  owing  to  the  differences 
in  altitude,  there  are  several  different  climates.  The  low  coastal 
plains,  near  Vera  Cruz  and  in  Yucatan,  are  hot  and  damp,  being 
reached  by  the  winds  which  blow  across  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
Caribbean  Sea.  There  is  also  much  rain  upon  the  cooler  plateau 
slopes  of  eastern  Mexico;  but  with  the  exception  of  these  regions, 
the  greater  part  of  Mexico  has  too  little  rainfall  for  agriculture 
without  irrigation. 

History.  —  After  Columbus  discovered  the  West  Indies,  the 
neighboring  coast  was  visited  and  settled,  and  thus  the  Spaniards 
naturally  came  into  possession  of  Mexico.  One  of  the  boldest  of  the 
Spanish  invaders  was  Cortez,  who  conquered  the  Aztec  and  Pueblo 
Indians  as  far  north  as  northern  New  Mexico. 

Spain  found  so  much  gold  and  silver  in  Mexico  that  many  Span- 
iards settled  there.  They  developed  the  mines,  started  coffee  plan- 
tations on  the  temperate  slopes,  established  farms  on  the  plateau 
where  irrigation  was  possible,  and  carried  on  cattle  ranching  in  the 
more  arid  portions.  The  intermarriage  of  Spanish  and  Indians 
caused  the  population  to  become  very  much  mixed;  and  there  are 
now  in  Mexico  not  only  savage  Indians  and  semi-civilized  Aztecs, 
but  many  half-breeds,  besides  some  pure-blooded  Spaniards. 

Spain  governed  Mexico  so  badly  that  the  people  rebelled,  and  in 
1821  won  their  independence,  establishing  a  republic  with  a  govern- 
ment modeled  after  our  own.  There  is  a  number  of  states,  each 
with  a  government  and  capital,  somewhat  as  in  each  of  our  states, 
and  a  central  government  with  the  capital  at  Mexico  City,  where 
the  President  lives.     For  a  long  time  Mexico  also  included  Texas, 


208 


NORTH  AMERICA 


a  part  of  Colorado,  and  the  country  west  of  them  to  the  Pacific. 
Texas  won  its  independence  by  war  and  joined  the  Union;  and  by 
the  Mexican  war  the  United  States  obtained  the  territory  marked 

"  ceded  by  Mexico, 
1848,"  in  Fig.  240. 
Agriculture  and 
Ranching.  —  Al- 
though the  climate 
of  a  large  part  of 
Mexico  is  arid,  much 
agriculture  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  aid 
of  irrigation,  which 
is  made  possible  by 
reason  of  th*e  snow 
and  rain  among 
the  mountains.  On  the  irrigated  farms  the  products  of  the  temperate 
zone  are  raised,  such  as  wheat,  corn,  and  beans  —  the  latter  being 
one  of  the  staple  elements  of  the  Mexican  diet.  Much  fruit  is  also 
produced,  especially  apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  grapes. 

The  Mexican  farming  methods,  which  are  very  crude,  are  a  mixture  of 
ancient  Aztec  customs  and  those  introduced  from  Spain.  In  Mexico 
one  may  still  see  the  wooden  plow  (Fig.  197),  which  barely  scrapes  the 
ground,  and  also  the  wooden  wheeled  cart,  drawn  by  oxen  (Fig.  31). 

The  home  life  of  the  people  is  interesting.  Their  houses  have  but  one 
story  and  are  commonly  built  of  a  brick  made  of  clay  mixed  with  straw,  and 
then  dried  in  the  sun  (Fig.  198).     These  sun-dried  bricks,  or  adobes,  are 


Fig.  197. 
A  Mexican  plowing  with  a  wooden  plow. 


Fig.  198. 
4n  adobe  house  in  Mexico. 


COUNTRIES    SOUTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


209 


larger  than  the  bricks  that  we  use,  and  are  piled  tier  upon  tier,  being  joined 
by  layers  of  mud.  Often  there  is  but  one  room  (Fig.  195),  the  ceiling  being 
made  of  brush,  and  the  floor  of  nothing  but  the  earth  or  stones.  In  this 
one  room  the  whole  family  cooks,  eats,  and  sleeps.  Their  food  usually 
consists  of  very  simple  materials,  such  as  unraised  bread,  baked  in  the 
fireplace,  beans,  and  occasionally  meat,  commonly  cooked  with  red  pepper. 

Upon  the  arid  plateaus,  the  plants  resemble  those  in  western 
United  States  (p.  25),  and  among  them  are  found  the  sage  bush,  the 
mesquite,  and  the  cactus  (Figs.  23  and  193).  One  among  them, 
known  as  the  maguey,  or  agave  (Fig.  199),  is  very  widely  used  in 
Mexico.  Its  stout,  sharp-pointed  leaves  rise  from  near  the  ground 
in  a  tuft.  In  the  center  of  this  rests  the  flower  stalk,  which  some- 
times reaches  a  height  of  forty  feet,  and  bears  a  cluster  of  white 
flowers  on  the  top. 
It  is  also  called  the 
century  plants  because 
it  requires  so  long 
(from  ten  to  seventy 
years)  to  reach  ma- 
turity and  product 
this  flower  stalk. 
From  the  fermented 
juice  of  this  plant 
the  Mexicans  obtain 
an  alcoholic  drink 
known  as  pulqye,  and 
by  distilling  it,  a  drink  known  as  mescal.  The  tough  leaves  contain 
a  fiber  which  is  made  into  paper  and  strong  thread.  So  valuable  is 
the  maguey  that  it  is  carefully  cultivated  upon  plantations  (Fig.  199). 

As  in  western  United  States,  large  parts  of  these  arid  plateaus 
cannot  be  reached  by  irrigating  ditches.  Such  parts  aire  valuable 
for  cattle  and  sheep  ranches.  Horses  and  goats  are  also  raised,  but 
neither  horses  nor  mules  are  used  so  much  in  Mexico  as  in  the  United 
States.  The  most  common  draft  animal  is  the  little  burro,  sometimes 
as  small  as  a  Shetland  pony. 

On  the  damp  lowlands,  rice,  sugar  cane,  and  cotton  are  produced; 
also  tropical  fruits,  such  as  oranges,  bananas,  and  pineapples,  quanti- 
ties of  which  are  exported  from  southeastern  Mexico.  Upon  the 
slopes  between  the  tropical  lowlands  and  the  temperate  plateau  much 
tobacco  and  coffee  are  raised. 


Fig.  199. 
A  field  of  maguey  plants  (century  plants) . 


210 


NORTH   AMERICA 


The  latter  requires  a  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture,  a  warm  climate,  and 
plenty  of  shade.  In  order  to  secure  shade,  the  coffee  bush,  which  reaches 
a  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  is  planted  in  the  shade  of  higher 
trees.     A  white  blossom  appears  as  early  as  March,  and  after  the  flower 

falls  off  the  coffee  berry  be- 
gins to  grow.  It  resembles 
a  dark  red  cranberry.  On 
the  outside  is  a  husk  inclos- 
ing two  kernels  that  fit  with 
the  flat  sides  together;  and 
in  order  to  prepare  the 
coffee  for  the  market  the 
outside  husk  must  first  be 
removed.  This  is  some- 
times done  by  the  Mexicans 
in  a  very  crude  way ;  but 
on  the  larger  plantations, 
machinery  is  employed. 

Southern  Mexico. — In 
southern  Mexico,  near 
Central  America,  there  are 
dense  tropical  forests  from 
which  are  obtained  many 
valuable  woods,  such  as 
mahogany,  rosewood,  and 
logwood.  Elsewhere  in 
that  country  forests  are 
rare,  except  upon  the  higher 
mountains.  In  fact  there 
is  so  little  forest  land  that 
the  Mexicans  living  on  the 
arid  plateau  find  difficulty  in  obtaining  wood  for  fuel.  Much  of  this  is 
dug  from  the  ground;  for  some  of  the  arid-land  bushes,  notably  the 
mesquite,  have  long,  thick  roots  which  make  excellent  firewood. 

Besides  the  valuable  woods  of  the  tropical  forests,  southern  Mexico 
produces  the  vanilla  bean,  which  grows  upon  a  climbing  plant.  In  the 
seed-pod  are  nestled  the  very  fragrant  beans  which  are  used  for  flavoring 
extracts,  for  perfumeries,  and  for  medicine.  Pepper,  made  from  the  dried 
berry  of  a  tropical  plant,  is  also  obtained  in  Mexico.  Indigo,  useful  as  a 
dye,  is  likewise  obtained  from  a  berry  in  this  region,  and  sarsaparilla  from 
the  roots  of  a  tropical  plant. 


Fig.  200. 
The  coffee  berry. 


The  Mines.  —  One  of  the  principal  objects  that  the  Spaniards  had 
in  exploring  the  New  World  was  to  obtain  the  precious  metals,  gold 
and  silver;  and  both  in  Mexico  and  South  America  they  were 
rewarded  in  their  search  by  the  discovery  of  very  rich  mines,  some 


COtTNTRIES    SOUTH    OF    TBE    UNITED    STATES 


211 


of  them  having  been  previously  worked  by  the  Indians.  Mexico  is 
still  a  great  mining  country,  producing  almost  as  much  silver  as  the 
United  States,  and  being  therefore  the  second  silver-producing  nation 
in  the  world.     There  are  also  some  mines  of  copper  and  lead. 

Many  of  the  mines  are  now  operated  by  Europeans  and  Ameri- 
cans, so  that  modern  methods  have  been  introduced ;  but  in  some  of 
those  managed  by  Mexicans,  primitive  methods,  similar  to  those  used 
by  the  Indians,  are  still  employed.  Large  areas  have  never  been 
carefully  examined  for  ore.  In  fact,  some  parts  of  the  country  are 
still  occupied  by  Indian  tribes,  who  not  only  prevent  miners  from 
coming  in,  but  even  defy  the  government. 

The  Cities.  —  While  great  numbers  of  Mexicans  are  engaged  in 
farming  and  ranching,  and  are  therefore  scattered  over  the  country, 
they  have,  wherever  possible,  gathered  together  in  villages  and  small 


Fig.  201. 
The  Mexican  city  of  Leon. 

towns.  These  communities  are  often  necessary  in  order  to  obtain 
the  water  supply  needed  for  irrigation.  It  is  usually  too  great  a 
task  for  a  single  farmer  to  build  a  ditch ;  and  therefore  a  number 
combine  and  thus  live  close  together. 

In  a  few  places,  too,  there  are  large  cities,  the  greatest  being 
Mexico  City,  with  a  population  of  about  350,000.  In  this  city,  as 
in  numerous  other  places  in  Mexico,  there  are  many  fine  buildings, 
especially  cathedrals ;  for  the  Mexicans,  like  Spaniards  in  other  parts 
of  the  world,  are  chiefly  Roman  Catholics. 


212  NOBTH   AMEBICA 

Another  city  in  the  interior  is  Puebla,  founded  in  1531,  and 
now  having  a  population  of  about  one  hundred  thousand.  It  is  situ- 
ated near  one  of  the  ancient  cities,  or  pueblos,  of  the  Aztecs.  San 
Luis  Potosi  is  nearly  as  large  as  Peoria,  111.,  and  there  are  a 
number  of  other  cities  with  a  population  of  fifty  thousand  and  over. 

Since  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico  is  low  and  sandy,  it  has  no  good 
harbors,  the  two  largest  cities  on  the  seacoast  being  Tampico  and 
Vera  Cruz,  whose  harbors  are  protected  by  breakwaters.  There 
are  good  harbors  on  the  western  coast,  as  that  at  Acapulco  ;  but 
since  it  is  backed  by  high  mountains  and  a  worthless  country,  that 
port  has  never  become  important. 

Because  of  the  ignorance  of  the  working  class,  and  the  absence  of 
water  power  and  coal,  there  is  very  little  manufacturing  in  Mexico ;  and 
that  which  is  done  is  largely  carried  on  by  hand.  However,  even  the 
uneducated  Mexicans  are  artistic  and  do  some  beautiful  kinds  of  hand- 
work. There  are  large  tobacco  factories  in  the  tobacco  district.  Some 
earthenware  is  also  manufactured,  and  some  cotton  cloth ;  but  there  are 
no  manufacturing  towns,  no  great  watch  and  shoe  factories,  and  no  im- 
mense blast  furnaces,  such  as  we  find  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 
But  Mexico  is  now  making  rapid  progress. 

Central  America 

The  Republics.  —  South  of  Mexico  are  five  small  nations,  known 
as  the  Republics  of  Central  America,  each  of  which  has  a  govern- 
ment modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States.  They  are,  however, 
not  good  examples  of  republics,  chiefly  because  of  the  ignorance  of 
the  people.  An  ambitious  general,  obtaining  a  few  followers,  is 
liable  at  any  time  to  start  a  revolution  and  overturn  the  existing 
government.  There  is  an  almost  constant  state  of  turmoil  in  these 
nations;  war  after  war  has  occurred;  presidents  have  been  deposed 
or  murdered ;  and  such  a  state  of  unrest  has  existed  that  there 
has  been  little  chance  for  development.  Their  political  condition 
resembles  that  of  the  country  in  which  they  live,  which  is  subject 
to  disastrous  eruptions  of  volcanoes,  and  to  earthquakes  of  great 
destructiveness.     They  truly  live  in  a  state  of  unrest. 

The  earthquake  shocks  have  leveled  towns  and  killed  thousands  of 
people.  For  instance,  San  Salvador,  the  capital  of  the  country  by  that 
name,  was  so  frequently  destroyed  by  earthquakes  that  the  inhabitants 
decided  to  choose  a  new  location  for  their  city  ;  but  the  one  they  selected 
is  hardly  better  than  the  one  they  abandoned. 


COUNTRIES    SOUTH    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


218 


Fig.  202. 
Loading  a  train  with  bananas  in  Costa  Rica. 


Most  of  Central  America  is  mountainous;  and,  being  in  the 
tropical  zone,  the  climate  is  hot.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  especially 
on  the  eastern  coast,  where  it  is  so  rainy  that  there  are  dense  jungles 
along  the  shores  of  the  Car- 
ibbean Sea. 

Of  the  five  countries 
forming  the  Central  Ameri- 
can group,  the  smallest  is 
San  Salvador,  the  next, 
Costa  Rica.  Nicaragua, 
Honduras,  and  Guatemala 
are  about  equal  in  size.  In 
addition  to  these,  just  south 
of  Yucatan,  is  British 
Honduras  (or  Belize).  The 
largest  city  in  the  group  is 
New  Guatemala,  the  cap- 
ital of  Guatemala,  which 
has  a  population  of  over 
ninety  thousand.  Like 
San  Salvador,  the  inhabitants  have  been  forced  to  change  its  location, 
which  was  formerly  at  the  base  of  two  very  active  volcanoes;  hence 

the  name,  New  Gua- 
temala. 

A  large  portion  of 
these  countries  is  oc- 
cupied  by  dense 
tropical  forests,  from 
which  are  obtained 
mahogany,  rosewood, 
logwood,  fustic,  and 
other  valuable  cabinet 
and  dye  woods.  The 
rubber  tree  also  grows 
there,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  rubber  is  one  of  the  industries  of  the  region.  As  in  Mexico, 
coffee  is  raised  on  the  hill  slopes  in  the  shade  of  the  forest  trees. 
One  of  the  most  important  districts  for  this  industry  is  Costa  Rica. 
Bananas  (Fig.  202),  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  and  cocoa  are  other  prod- 
ucts of  Central  America. 


Fig.  203. 
Natives  sorting  coffee  in  Costa  Rica. 


214  NORTH    AMERICA 

Some  gold  and  silver  are  obtained,  the  former  near  Bluefields,  the 
latter  in  Honduras. 

The  inhabitants  are  mainly  Indians,  Spaniards,  and  half-breeds ; 
and  owing  to  the  uneducated  condition  of  the  great  majority,  and 
even  the  uncivilized  condition  of  many,  there  is  practicall}'-  no  manu- 
facturing carried  on  in  these  countries. 

The  Panama  Canal.  —  To  us  one  of  the  principal  points  of  in- 
terest connected  with  this  region  is  the  building  of  the  Panama 
Canal  across  the  narrow  strip  of  land  which  separates  the  Atlantic 
from  the  Pacific.  This  Canal  will  connect  the  ports  of  Colon  and 
Panama  in  the  Republic  of  Panama.  The  distance  is  only  about  fifty 
miles  and  the  elevation  but  three  hundred  feet  at  the  highest  point. 

Another  route  for  a  canal,  which  at  one  time  found  favor  in  the 
United  States,  is  the  Nicaragua  route.  This  is  much  longer  than 
the  Panama  route,  but  it  passes  over  an  elevation  only  about  half  as 
great.  A  large  part  of  the  distance  is  occupied  by  a  river  and  by 
Lake  Nicaragua  (Fig.  194),  the  largest  lake  in  North  America  south 
of  the  United  States. 

After  long  consideration  by  engineers  and  experts,  the  United 
States  government  decided  to  build  the  canal  by  the  Panama  route 
and  entered  into  treaty  with  the  Republic  of  Panama  for  the  abso- 
lute control  and  ownership  of  the  work. 

The  canal  will  be  of  great  service  to  the  seacoast  cities  of  North 
America  and  Europe.  By  the  canal  a  steamer  going  from  London 
to  San  Francisco  will  save  five  thousand  miles,  while  eight  thousand 
miles  will  be  saved  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco.  Examine  the 
globe  to  see  why  more  will  be  saved  in  the  latter  case. 


The  West  Indies 

(Map,  Fig.  163.) 

From  the  Yucatan  and  Florida  peninsulas  a  chain  of  islands  reaches 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  on  the  South  American  coast.  These 
islands  inclose  the  Caribbean  Sea ;  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  penin- 
sulas of  Florida  and  Yucatan,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  also.  Because 
of  the  mistake  made  by  Columbus,  these  islands  are  to  this  day 
called  the  West  Indies.     They  are  often  known  as  the  Antilles. 

With  the  exception  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Bahamas,  this 
entire  archipelago  lies  within  the  tropics,  and  therefore  has  a  warm 


COUNTRIES    SOUTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


215 


climate ;  and  all  have  a  damp  climate.  There  are  many  scores  of 
islands  in  the  group,  only  a  few  of  which  are  large.  Two  of  these, 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  have  already  been- described  (pp.  180  to  184). 
Tell  what  you  can  about  them. 

Jamaica.  —  South  of  Cuba  lies  the  Island  of  Jamaica,  the  third  in 
size  in  the  West  Indies,  and  a  possession  of  Great  Britain.     Its  capi- 
tal is  Kingston,  a  city  nearly  as  large  as  Portland,  Me.     This 
island  is  mountainous 
in  the  center,  but  has 

an  excellent   soil  on  — j^!yi^-> 

the  lower  slopes  and 
in  the  valleys,  and 
is  very  productive. 
The  inhabitants  are 
mainly  negroes  or 
mulattoes,  there  being 
fully  forty  negroes 
to  one  white  person. 
The  women  do  out- 
door work  fully  as 
much  as  the  men. 

The  occupation  of 
the  Jamaicans  is 
chiefly  agriculture. 
One  of  the  main  products  is  sugar  cane,  from  which  are  made  sugar, 
molasses,  and  rum.  Early  vegetables  and  fruits,  such  as  oranges  and 
bananas,  are  also  raised.  Jamaica  ginger,  of  which  every,  one  has 
heard,  is  obtained  from  the  root  of  a  plant  that  grows  in  this  island. 

Haiti.  —  The  first  large  island  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492 
was  Haiti,  and  on  it  he  made  settlements  and  opened  mines.  The 
descendants  of  the  Spanish  slaves  have  now  become  free,  after  a 
very  complex  history,  and  have  set  up  two  negro  republics,  Haiti 
and  Santo  Domingo.  The  capital  of  the  former  is  Port  au  Prince  •, 
and  of  the  latter,  Santo  Domingo.  Many  of  the  natives  obtain 
their  living  in  the  most  primitive  fashion,  like  the  negroes  of  Africa ; 
but  others,  especially  near  the  seacoast,  are  engaged  in  raising  sugar, 
tobacco,  coffee,  and  bananas. 

Lesser  Antilles.  —  Most  of  the  islands  among  the  Lesser  Antilles 
are  possessions  of  Great  Britain,  though  some  belong  to  other 
nations.     For  instance,  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe  belong  to  France ; 


Fig.  204. 
A  field  of  sugar  cane  in  the  West  Indies  (St.  Croix). 


216 


NORTH   AMERICA 


St.  Thomas  and  St.  Croix  to  Denmark;  and  others  to  Holland. 
Many  of  these  small  islands  are  volcanic  cones,  built  upon  the  crest 
of  a  mountain  ridge  which  is  mainly  beneath  the  sea  (Fig.  1).  Most 
of  the  volcanoes  now  appear  to  be  extinct,  though  in  recent  years  in 

Martinique  and  in 
St.  Vincent  there 
have  been  violent 
volcanic  outbursts. 
Hot  water  and  steam 
still  rise  from  the 
craters  in  other 
islands,  showing 
that  the  volcanic 
fires  have  not  alto- 
gether died  out. 

The  products  of 
these  .  islands  are 
similar  to  those  of 
the  other  West  In- 
dies, the  most  im- 
portant of  all  being 
sugar  cane. 

The  Bahamas.  — 
North  of  Haiti  and 
Cuba  are  several  hundred  small  islands,  called  the  Bahamas.  A 
number  of  these  are  inhabited,  and  on  one  is  situated  the  city  of 
Nassau..  These  islands  have  been  built  by  coral  polyps.  In  the 
warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  sweeps  over  the  shallow 
bank  on  which  the  islands  lie,  these  minute  sea  animals  have  built 
reefs.  Waves  have  washed  the  dead  coral  fragments  together,  form- 
ing bars  and  beaches,  and  the  wind  has  blown  the  coral  sand  into 
low  sand-dune  hills.     In  this  way  the  islands  have  been  made. 

Sponges  are  obtained  from  the  clear,  warm  waters  of  the  Bahama 
banks.  To  obtain  them,  the  natives  either  cruise  about  in  boats,  drag- 
ging the  bottom,  or  they  strip  off  their  clothes  and  dive  into  the  clear 
water,  tearing  the  sponge  from  the  bottom  to  which  it  is  clinging. 

From  the  land,  early  vegetables,  pineapples,  oranges,  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  raised  by  the  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  negroes.  One  of 
the  industries  on  these  islands  is  caring  for  winter  visitors.  Why 
should  people  wish  to  go  there  ? 


Fig.  205. 


A  tropical  scene  in  the  West  Indies  (St.  Croix). 


countries  south  of  the  united  states  217 

The  Bermudas 

Far  out  in  the  Atlantic,  alone  in  mid-ocean,  and  600  miles  east  of 
the  Carolinas,  is  a  cluster  of  small  islands,  known  as  the  Bermudas, 
the  largest  being  only  15  miles  long  by  one  or  two  miles  in  width. 
Being  in  the  open  ocean,  and  surrounded  by  warm  currents,  the 
Bermudas  have  a  delightful  and  equable  climate.  In  midwinter, 
when  people  in  the  same  latitude  in  the  United  States  are  shiver- 
ing with  cold,  those  in  Bermuda  are  able  to  sit  out  of  doors  late 
at  night. 

This  group  of  islands,  which  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  is  inhabited 
mainly  by  negroes  and  mulattoes,  who  are  engaged  in  raising  early 
vegetables,  especially  potatoes  and  onions,  for  the  American  market. 
Another  important  product  is  the  Easter  lily,  great  fields  of  which 
are  raised  for  the  Easter  season.  It  is  natural  that  many  persons 
from  the  United  States  should  be  attracted  to  such  a  climate  every 
winter.  The  majority  of  these  visitors  stay  in  the  largest  city, 
Hamilton. 

review  questions  and  suggestions 

Mexico :  Questions.  —  (1)  Describe  the  surface  of  Mexico.  (2)  Why  are 
there  few  good  harbors?  (3)  Tell  about  the  temperature  and  rainfall  in  the 
different  parts.  (4)  Give  the  history  of  Mexico :  —  the  early  settlement ;  the 
industries  developed ;  the  present  government ;  the  loss  of  territory.  (5)  Mention 
the  leading  products  from  the  irrigated  farms.  (6)  Tell  about  the  methods  of 
farming.  (7)  About  the  home  life.  (8)  Name  some  of  the  plants  on  the  arid 
plateaus ;  what  products  are  obtained  from  the  maguey  ?  (9)  What  are  the  chief 
products  on  the  damp  lowlands  ?  (10)  On  the  slopes  farther  inland  ?  (11)  Tell 
about  coffee  raising.  (12)  In  what  part  of  the  country  are  the  forests?  (13)  Name 
the  valuable  woods.  (14)  Name  the  products  of  southern  Mexico.  (15)  Tell 
about  the  mining  of  precious  metals.  (16)  Locate  the  principal  cities  in  the 
interior ;  on  the  coast.  (17)  Why  is  there  little  manufacturing  ?  (18)  What 
kinds  are  there  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (19)  Find  out  why  coffee  raising  requires  special  care. 
(20)  Find  an  article  of  furniture  made  of  mahogany.  (21)  Walk  toward  Mexico 
City.  (22)  What  reason  can  you  give  for  its  location?  (23)  Compared  with 
water  routes,  are  railways  more  or  less  important  in  Mexico  than  in  the  United 
States?  Why?  (24)  Collect  pictures  of  Mexican  scenes.  (25)  Find  some  one 
who  has  been  in  Mexico,  and  have  him  tell  you  about  it.  (26)  Who  is  the  Presi- 
dent of  Mexico  ?     (27)   Make  a  sketch  map  of  Mexico. 

Central  America :  Questions.  —  (28)  Name  the  five  nations  in  Central 
America.  (29)  To  whom  does  Belize  belong?  (30)  What  about  the  earth- 
quakes in  Central  America?  (31)  Describe  the  climate.  (32)  Locate  the  leading 
cities.     (33)   What  products  of  Mexico  are  also  found  in  Central  America? 


218 


NORTH    AMERICA 


(34)  On  the  map  locate  the  canal  that  has  been  begun  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  (35)  Where  is  it  proposed  to  start  another?  Give  reasons  in  favor 
of  each. 

Suggestions.  —  (36)  What  disadvantages  do  you  see  in  the  lack  of  a  central 
government  for  all  the  Central  Atnerican  republics?  (37)  In  what  other  ways 
besides  saving  coal  would  a  canal  there  prove  of  advantage  ?  Let  a  committee  be 
appointed  from  your  class  to  obtain  definite  facts  about  the  matter.  (38)  Why 
would  harbors  at  each  end  of  the  canal  be  necessary  ?  (39)  Make  a  sketch  map 
of  Central  America. 

The  West  Indies ;  Questions.  —  (40)  Into  what  groups  are  the  islands 
divided?  (41)  Tell  about  their  climate.  (42)  What  can  you  say  about  Jamaica ? 
(43)  What  two  republics  on  the  island  of  Haiti?  Name  their  capitals.  (44)  What 
are  its  products?  (45)  How  have  most  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  been  formed? 
(46)  What  is  their  principal  product  ?  (47)  How  have  the  Bahama  Islands  been 
built  ?     (48)    Name  some  of  the  products  of  the  islands. 

Suggestion.  —  (49)  How  does  each  of  the  four  largest  islands  compare  in 
area  and  population  with  New  York  State  ?  (See  tables  in  Appendix,  pp.  i  and 
iii.) 

The  Bermudas.  —  (50)    For  what  are  they  important  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


Fia.  P. 
Rebuilding  San  Francisco.  February,  1908.     Looking  west  from  Rincon  Hill,  San  Francisco. 


XIII.     REVIEW    OF   NORTH    AMERICA 

Physical  Geography.  —  The  natural  advantages  that  North  Amer- 
ica possesses  as  a  home  for  man  have  been  the  result  of  slow  changes 
extending  through  millions  of  years.     How  have  the  mountains  been 


NiswYork. 

l^nnsytvanUL 

nunota. 

OhiA 

J,99Z3S3 

^Z5Qplt 

Mlssoort 

3.QZ6J3JI 

J fi  72,3/6 

ifi73ttG4 

Fig.  206. 

The  five  states  having  the  greatest  population  in  1900.    In  this  and  all  the  other  similar 
figures  the  relative  importance  of  the  states  is  indicated  by  the  area  of  the  squares. 

brought  into  existence  ?  (p.  2)  and  where  are  the  principal  chains  ? 
How  was  coal  formed  ?  (p.  2.)  What  portion  of  the  continent  Avas 
covered  by  the  glacier  ?  (Fig.  9.)  What  work  of  advantage  to  us 
did  it  accomplish  ?  (pp.  11-15.)  In  what  ways  is  the  more  recent 
rising  or  sinking  of  the  coast  of  importance  ?     (p.  16.) 


Distribution  of  the  Population  \ 
OF  THE  United  States.  1890. 
legend: 
gg  Few  Eeople 
"^^  Sparsely  Fopulated 
Densely  Populated 
Most  Densely  Populated  Section 


207. 
219 


290 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


How  do  the  animals  and  plants  of  North  America  vary  ?  (pp. 
20-29.)  Describe  the  manner  of  life  among  the  Eskimos  (p.  30); 
among  the  Indians  (p.  31).     What  European  nations  endeavored  to 


ITktdbanon  of  Erincipal  Citieef 
and  Towns  of  tlie 
^  United  States. 

y  SCALE  OF  MILES^ 

/lOO    200    SOOjIft)  105 


Fig.  208. 
The  star  shows  the  center  of  population  of  the  United  States. 

obtain  possession  of  large  sections  of  this  continent?    (pp.  33-34.) 

Give  some  reasons  why  the  English  succeeded  most  fully  (pp.  34-37). 

Population. — At  the  present  time  there  are  probably  more  than 

a  hundred  million  people  living  in  North  America,  distributed  among 


Fig.  209. 
On  these  maps  the  spaces  left  blank  indicate  either  little  or  no  production. 


BEVIBW 


Stl 


the  four  greater  sections  as  follows  ;  Central  America,  over  four 
millions  ;  Canada,  fully  six  millions  ;  Mexico,  over  thirteen  millions ; 
and  the  United    States    (not   including  dependencies),  more  than 


fcrtfa 


IWnol9 


ATisMorf. 


j^H77tS0t 
tjr*.73l.t60 


reacas. 


$3Jf,af  4.478 

w.x33ejoo 


H4i9t«j0ft 

/sejs4.9eo 


Fig.  210. 
Com  production,  in  dollars  and  in  bushels,  in  the  five  leading  corn-producing  states. 

eighty- four  millions.  From  these  figures  it  is  evident  that  about 
three  fourths  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  continent  are  living  in  the 
United  States.  Figure  207  shows  the  density  of  population  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  Union.  (See  also  Fig.  39.)  Where  is  the  most 
thickly  settled  quarter?  Why?  The  most  sparsely  settled  ?  Figure 
208  gives  the  location  of  the  cities,  the  largest  having  the  largest  dots. 
In  the  Appendix  (p.  iv)  is  a  table  of  the  largest  cities.  Find  the 
dot  (Fig.  208)  that  represents  each  large  city  and  give  its  population. 
In  what  respect  are  these  two  figures  (207  and  208)  alike  ? 


Fig.  211. 


City  and  Country.  —  The  great  cities  are  so  numerous,  and  are  so 
often  mentioned,  that  there  is  danger  of  overestimating  their  impor- 
tance as  compared  with  the  country.     At  the  time  of  George  Wash- 


f^2 


NORTH    AMERICA 


ington  very  few  people  lived  in  cities.  Even  at  the  present  time 
about  two  thirds  of  our  eighty-four  million  inhabitants  live  either 
in  the  country,  or  in  towns  with  a  population  of  less  than  eight 
thousand.  In  Mexico  and  Canada  the  proportion  living  in  cities  is 
still  smaller.  In  other  words,  the  great  majority  of  persons  in  North 
America  are  country  people. 


Mlnnesoeez. 

Kansas 

North  Dakoext 

Ohio 

. 

$&4jiOQ39a 

33MGiPi9 

Fig.  212. 
Wheat  production,  in  dollars  and  bushels,  in  the  five  leading  wheat-producing  states. 

Country.  —  The  leading  occupations  of  those  living  outside  of 
the  cities  have  already  been  studied.  Agriculture  is  the  most 
important  of  all.  At  the  present  time  there  are  over  five  million 
families  occupying  farms  in  the  United  States.  About  how  many 
persons  does  that  represent  ?  Why  should  so  many  people  live  on 
farms  ? 

Figure  209  shows  the  regions  that  are  extensively  engaged  in 
raising  corn.  What  states  are  included  ?  In  1898  nearly  two  bil- 
lion bushels  were  produced  ;  how  many  is  that  to  each  of  our  inhab- 
itants ?  How  is  corn  culti- 
vated, and  what  are  its 
uses?    (p.  124.) 

Many  of  the  states  that 
raise  corn  are  also  exten- 
sively engaged  in  the 
wheat  industry.  Figure 
211  shows  the  wheat 
regions.  Tell  about 
wheat  in  the  valley  of 
the  Red  River  of  the 
North,  and  about  the  Dal- 
rymple  farm  in  particular  (p.  125).  Wheat  and  corn  are  our  most 
valuable  food  crops.  What  other  grains  can  you  mention,  and  for 
what  is  each  used? 

The  cotton  belt  is  confined  entirely  to  the  south-eastern  portion 


Fig.  213. 


BEVIEW 


223 


of  the  country,  as  shown  in  Figure  213.     Why  ?     Name  the  principal 
cotton-raising   states.      Tell  about  the  growth  and  uses   of  cotton 


Textui. 


UlMlSStppt 

GeorgUt 

Alabama 

SCarvbna 

l^li.TTt 

iJSSOJBt 

tJISfiQt 

(P3(i00^. 

^C-r 

r,        01 /I 

Five  principal  cotton-producing  states. 


i.66mS6Z,000 
Pott/ids 

"LotUatana 

JtdwatUm 
lalandji 

pnoipptne. 

9»VO0rm 

'aioaotat, 

13J,000,000 

Fig. 

Porto  Rico.   10^000,000 
215. 

Principal  sugar-producing  districts  in  the  United  States  and  its 
dependencies 


Cuba 

(p.  102).  Wherein 
these  states  are 
sugar  and  rice 
grown?  How  is 
the  work  carried 
on?  (p.  104.)  In 
what  sections  of 
California  are 
sugar  beets  grown  and  sugar  manufactured  ?  (p.  161.)  Why  is 
sugar  cane  not  raised  in  California?     How  does  sugar  beet  differ 

from   the    sugar    cane    in 
growth  and  appearance  ? 

A  large  sugar-refining 
plant  is  located  at  Port 
Costa,  California. 

From  where  does  this 
refinery  receive  its  raw 
sugar  ?  Why  is  it  located 
at  Port  Costa? 

According  to  Figure 
216  what  states  are  large- 
ly engaged  in  tobacco 
growing?  What  is  the 
appearance  of  the  plant, 
niul  how  is  it  prepared 
fur  use  ?     (p.  74.) 


gome  Tobacco  xaisetL 
Gieateat  Xubaceo 
falsing  Seiutioa 


FiQ.  216. 


224 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Following  are  three  figures  showing  the  principal  states  from 
which  some  of  the  other  important  farm  products  come. 


J^ew  York. 


Hay  produc- 
tion, in  dollars 
and  tons,  in  the 
five  principal 
hay-produc- 
ing states.  For 
what  is  hay 
used? 


Number  of  hogs 
and  their  value  in 
the  five  principal 
states. 


pennsylvmaa. 


Cdti/ornUt. 


Fig. 

217. 

romt 

Wasoari 

Ofua 

iWMia. 

$i^s90.aoo 
9Aoe.&ei 

rtauu. 

fU"'     '^^ 

^Hfi9e/3%0 

/f^srz/er 

/hot  7^89 

^iH3iej906 

^fei^  ^"pwl! 

Z949e/& 

K307.0S/ 

KP06Jij63 

9,084.987 

^^^. 

Fig.  218. 


Five  principal 
milk-producing 
states. 


Afew  %/* 

Iowa. 

T^enn^tvanta. 

mnota. 

ees.9i7,SL^ 

409061.4  It 

OhUx 

S€Gfi06.480 

56ZZe9.4e4- 

VUlfii4f96 

Fig.  219. 


Mining  is  a  second  industry  which  confines  people  largely  to 
small  towns  and  to  the  country.  About  four  hundred  thousand 
men  are  employed  at  it.     How  many  different  metals  can  you  name? 


LEGEf^o: 
k  Cosl  Efioduced 
f  Ctteatest  Cosl  Prodacing  Section 


79A'         V5 


Fio.  220. 


REVIEW 


225 


t^smsylvania. 


WZ029.6J'i 
,  ^   ^  Tonx   .  0 

•?  C  P  ri  f?n»'CK 


^$t*A7tnV  M9J3SA09 


1$0;9S  7.3  93\\$<r.tf9, 


tfitt/iSJ 


How  many  other  products  can  you  mention  that  are  obtained  from 
underground  ? 

Of  them  all,  the  fueU  are  probably  the  most  valuable.  Why  ? 
What  kinds  are  there?  Figure  220  shows  how  extensive  the  cook 
beds  are.  Name  the  states  in  which  the  greatest  quantities  of 
coal  are  mined.  Of  what  impor- 
tance is  it  that  there  are  coal 
fields  in  so  many  parts  of  the 
country  ?  What  kinds  of  coal  are 
there  ?  And  what  are  the  differ- 
ences between  them  ?  (p.  4.)  De- 
scribe a  coal  mine  (pp.  77-78). 
What  are  the  uses  of  coal  ? 

Name  the  chief  states  in  which 
petroleum  and  natural  gas  are 
found.     Tell  also  how  they  have  been  produced  during  the  past 
ages  and  what  their  uses  are  (p.   78). 

The  ores  producing  iron  are  among  the  most  important  of  the 

mineral  products.     Why  so  important  ?     Where  are  the  principal 

iron-producing  regions  ?  (Fig.  223.)    How  is  pig  iron  made  ?  (p.  81.) 

Mchioaiu  Why  is  not  the  Lake  Superior 

district   a   favorable   place   for 
^^'^''p£siii^perm»    smcltiug  Irou  ore? 

Among  the  metals  of  great 


Fig.  221. 

Coal  production;  in  dollars  and  tons,  in  the 
five  leading  coal-producing  states. 


$6.34  70  IS         Minnesota. 


Fig.  222. 


mportance  to  man  are  the 
precious  metals  gold  and  silver. 
Describe  three  methods  of  gold 

Iron-ore  production,  in  dollars  and  tons,  in  the     mining    (p.    153).      Tell    about 
five  leading  iron-ore-producing  states.  ,,         ^     ^^  .    .         •      /^   t 

gold  and  silver  mining  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Colorado  (pp.  153-154).  In  what  other  parts  of  our 
country  are  the  precious  metals  found?  (Figs.  224,  226.)  What 
two  sections  are  most  noted  for  copper  mining?  (Fig.  223.)  Tell 
about  that  industry  in  each  section  (pp.  134, 155).  Where  and  how 
is  stone  quarrying  carried  on  in  New  England?  (pp.  53-55.)  How 
is  salt  mining  carried  on  in  New  York?  (p.  76.) 

Grazing  is  a  third  important  rural  occupation.  Point  out  on 
the  map  (Fig.  44)  the  portions  of  the  country  largely  given  up  t« 
it.  Why  these?  Relate  how  cattle  ranching  is  carried  on  (p.  128) ; 
also  sheep  ranching  (p.  161).  Which  states  are  most  important  in 
these  industries?     (Figs.  228-280.) 


226 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Lumbering  is  a  fourth  great  industry  that  attracts  people  to  the 
country.  Figure  231  shows  the  distribution  of  the  forests.  De- 
scribe the  industry  as  it  is  carried  on  in  Maine  (p.  51).  In  the 
Southern  States  (p.  101).    In  Michigan  (p.  130).    In  the  Northwest 


legend: 
#  Copper 

Soil  and  Gas 
1 


Fig.  223. 
Leading  iron,  copper,  oil,  and  gas  producing  regions. 

(p.  156).  Why  these  differences?  Which  are  the  most  common 
kinds  of  trees?  What  are  the  products  of  the  forest  besides  lum- 
ber? (pp.  52,  53,  and  101.) 

Fishing  is  a  fifth  prominent  occupation  outside  of  cities.  In 
what  sections  is  it  especially  important?  Describe  how  cod  fishing 
is  carried  on  (p.  56^ ;  salmon  fishing  (p.  172) ;  the  oyster  in- 
dustry (p.  72). 

Altogether,  therefore,  there  are  five  industries  that  lead  the 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  to  live  in  small 
towns  or  in  the  country.  Name  these  occupations.  They  furnish 
us  with  the  raw  materials  for  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  What  raw 
materials  enter  into  each,  and  whence  does  each  come? 

Cities.  —  What  are  the  principal  occupations  in  the  cities  ?  The 
answer  has  been  repeatedly  suggested.  What,  for  instance,  are  the 
main  kinds  of  business  in  Duluth?  (p.  136.)  In  Minneapolis?  (p. 
141  )  In  Chicago?  (pp.  137-139.)  In  Buffalo?  (p.  85.)  In  New 
York?  (pp.  87-92.)  In  Baltimore?  (p.  93.)  In  San  Francisco? 
(p.  170.)  Tell  what  is  done  in  various  cities  with  grain,  ores,  hides, 
cotton,  wool,  lumber,  and  fish. 


Fig.  224. 
Grold  and  silver  producing  regions  indicated  by  crosses. 


Colorada 

Califomui. 

/  /9, 104.  2^^-^^ 

—  PANNi^fc  (;oa>— 

7VZ760 

l£^^Monlan.  ^_,^ 

$J.63^^900 
Z7J.^3t 

Fig.  225. 

Gold  production,  in  dollars  and  ounces,  in  the  five  leading  gold-producing 

states. 


Cdlontdo. 


$2,197^.336' 
St,<S^6.4pO 


Mcntana. 


/jr,667300 


UtdfL 


4sf00,9  7Q  ^36^03 


ejsejreoo 


Idxiho 


HSOViOO 


AriAona. 


Fig.  226. 


Silver  production,  in  dollars  and  ounces,  in  the  five  leading  silver-producing 

states. 


M7 


1 

^1 

^^^B^^.  J 

■ 

^^^H 

1      ^ 

■ 

^^^^^1 

»          j'WU 

p 

^^^H 

^Jb  i^l^^^Hj 

Mg^H 

HH 

^^K. 

!!  tSfftflH 

iflH:  ifl^^S 

I 

t 

mm£ 

"W"' 

% 

^^^S '  -'i^H 

\ 

^W^t^-  ^j-^H 

..^ 

BHjK 

■*  "Ti             ^^H 

r 

1 

1 

■'^^^K^!r^B 

"■  ^ 

■ 

-'llPJI^^^^Hj 

^mammm 

^^am 

Fig.  Q. 
Giant  Grapevine  —  Oarpinteria—  California. 


Kansas 


JlUrwO  NewYoHc 


$77,4Ce,3t3 
2JJ€i946 


$70.7J9.0tb 
t,Z6G.t7a 


$e*,na.379 


Fia.  228. 


Number  of  cattle  and  their  value  in  the  five  principal  cattle-producing  states. 
Many  of  these  are  kept,  not  on  ranches,  but  on  farms  in  the  Eastern  States. 


imrwia 

totva 

New  York. 

OTiio. 

Pennsylvania, 

$40,^3  7.9  J>  4 

IfiOS.idS 

^|^__^ 

f37.6eeA«6. 

03*.e34.aa3 

4^9.791.046 

f  g.Si390jBJ8 

^K 

SOf.SSZ 

j-3o.7aa 

eS3.499 

S  40,7*7 

Fig.  229. 
Number  of  horses  and  their  value  in  the  five  principal  horse-producing  states. 


<»iia 

Monzana. 

'.Wyomtnff 

Orcaoru 

JfnvMeidoty 

$9.6BO.QeS 
ZJ30.47t           . 

9.37%S4t 

fV72,64S 

$6.403901 

ejr7j.46Q 

4e.st/ziS33 

3HSte.09& 

Fig.  230. 
Number  of  sheep  and  their  value  in  the  five  leading  sheep-producfng  states. 


"-  'V 


Fig.  231. 
Map  showing  the  regions  from  which  much  timber  is  now  being  obtained. 


228 


BEVIEW 


229 


It  is  evident  that  one  of  the  principal  occupations  in  cities  is 
MANUFACTURING.     Where,  for  example,  is  the  making  of  iron  goods 

especially   important?     Tobacco?     . 

Sugar?  Paper?  Farming  imple- 
ments ?  Furniture  ?  Freight  and 
passenger  cars?  Cotton  cloth? 
Woolen  cloth  ?  A  single  large 
factory  may  employ  thousands  of 
workmen  (p.  62),  and  where  hun- 
dreds of  factories  are  established, 
as  in  New  York,  Chicago,  and 
Philadelphia,  there  must  be  an 
enormous  population.  More  than 
five  million  persons  are  engaged 
in  manufacturing  in  the  United 
States  and  the  number  is  con- 
stantly increasing. 

A  second  great  occupation  in 
cities  is  that  of  buying  and  sell- 
ing. Although  grain,  cotton,  wool, 
etc.,  are  produced  in  immense 
quantities  in  the  country,  they  are 
not  generally  bought  and  sold 
there.  That  work  must  be  car- 
ried on  where  there  are  great  num- 
bers of  people ;  for  where  else  could  it  be  done  so  successfully  ?  If  a 
person  living  in  a  city  should  want  only  a  bushel  of  potatoes,  he 
would  not  go  to  a  farmer  for  them,  but  to  a  store  to  which  many  other 

people    also    go   to   buy  goods.      If 


^^"^^^'S^^V^-^' 


Fig.  232. 
Sections  where  ocean  fish  are  found. 


Pennsylvanut 


$2e4^7i.ei4 


Ohio 


^BsaeS^ 


fejCiotaetB 


you  were   a  farmer   in   Illinois  and 
\NYN.jt   wanted  to  buy  a  car  load  of  cattle 
I    I    to  fatten,  you  would  not  go  out  West 
to  a  cattle  ranch,  but  probably  to  the 
jtcw^r^^'vut^tf)  stock  yards  at  Chicago,  where  many 

FiQ-  233.  cattle  are  always  to  be  found.     Or  if 

Value  of  iron  manufacturing  in  the  five    you   had  a  quantity  of  COtton  to  dis- 
leading  iron-manufacturing  states,  pi  i  i  i  i      • 

pose  01,  where  else  could  you  do  it 
better  than  in  some  city  where  cotton  is  bought  and  sold,  as  in  New 
Orleans  or  Memphis?  Not  only  must  there  be  stores  where  we  can 
buy  what  we  need,  but  there  must  also  be  centers^  or  cities,  where 

IT— ▲• 


230  NOBTR   AMERICA 

goods  may  be  bought  and  sold  on  a  still  larger  scale.  A  city  bears 
mucb  the  same  relation  to  the  country  round  about  that  a  store  does 
to  the  people  who  live  near  enough  to  trade  there. 

Since  enormous  quantities  of  raw  material  must  be  shipped  into 
the  cities  for  the  manufacture  of  goods,  and  since  most  of  the  finished 
articles  are  sent  away,  the  business  of  shipping,  or  transporting, 
is  a  third  great  occupation  in  cities.  Tens  of  thousands  of  men  are 
employed  in  loading  and  unloading  cars,  boats,  and  wagons. 

In  this  country  fully  four  million  persons  are  employed  in 
commercial  business,  —  buying,  selling,  and  transporting  goods. 
What  raw  products  are  taken  to  Detroit,  and  what  finished  prod- 
ucts are  taken  away  ?  Answer  the  same  in  regard  to  Milwaukee, 
Peoria,  Louisville,  Providence,  Denver,  and  New  Orleans.  If 
your  home  is  in  the  city,  answer  the  same  for  that ;  if  not,  for  the 
nearest  city. 

Thus  there  are  three  leading  occupations  in  cities;  namely, 
MANUFACTURING,  TRADING,  and  TRANSPORTING.  Every  city  has  all 
three ;  but  some  that  are  particularly  distinguished  for  the  first  are 
known  as  manufacturing  centers;  and  others,  distinguished 
especially  for  the  second,  are  known  as  trade  centers.  Minneap- 
olis is  an  example  of  the  former,  and  St.  Paul  of  the  latter.  Give 
other  examples  of  each.  Those  cities,  like  Boston,  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  and  Montreal,  the  loca- 
tion of  which  is  especially  favorable  for  the  shipment  of  goods,  are 
great  commercial  centers,  and  usually  also  manufacturing  centers. 
Why? 

The  relation  between  country  and  city  is  now  clear.  Nearly  one 
half  of  our  men  are  engaged  in  obtaining  raw  materials,  and  the 
remainder  are  mainly  engaged  in  manufacturing  them  into  useful 
articles,  in  buying,  selling,  and  transporting  them.  Show  by  numer- 
ous examples  how  neither  class  can  do  well  without  the  other. 

But  while  they  are  so  dependent,  the  life  of  one  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  other.  Recall  farm  life  as  described  on  page  121. 
What  idea  have  you  formed  of  farm  life  on  Southern  plantations  ? 
Of  the  miner's  manner  of  living?  The  ranchman's?  (p.  129.)  The 
lumberman's?  (p.  51.)     The  fisherman's  ?  (pp.  55-57.) 

Recall,  on  the  other  hand,  what  was  said  about  life  in  New  York 
City  (p.  88).  Give  your  idea  of  factory  life.  Of  life  in  trade 
and  transportation. 

What  attractions  and  objeotions  do  you  find  in  each  of  these 


BEVIEW  S81 

leveral  occupations  ?  Is  tlie  work  of  a  farm  hand  more  or  less  nar- 
rowing than  that  of  a  factory  hand  ?  Why  ?  Suppose  that  two  young 
men  are  much  alike  in  ability,  disposition,  and  training;  how  are 
they  liable  to  grow  unlike  if  one  chooses  mining  for  an  occupation, 
and  the  other  chooses  trade  ?  Give  other  instances  showing  how  the 
work  that  one  follows  influences  his  manner  of  life  and  development. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  which  occupation  requires  the  hardest 
work,  for  success  demands  one's  best  effort,  no  matter  what  the  occu- 
pation may  be.  But  of  those  living  in  the  city  on  the  one  hand,  and 
in  the  country  on  the  other,  which  are  more  certain  of  the  ordinary 
necessities  of  life  ?  Why  ?  Which  have  more  comforts  ?  Why  ? 
Which  are  more  independent  in  general  ?  Why  ?  Which  have  the 
better  opportunities  for  amusement  ?  Why  ?  For  education  ? 
Why  ?     For  homes  with  plenty  of  light  and  fresh  air  ?     Why  ? 

For  many  years  the  population  of  cities  has  been  increasing  more 
rapidly  than  that  of  the  country,  which  suggests  that  people  are 
preferring  city  to  country  life.  Can  you  give  any  reasons  for  this 
in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  ? 

Dependence  of  Different  Sections  upon  one  Another.  —  No  one 
locality  produces  all  of  the  materials  needed  there.  Which  of  your 
foods  are  not  raised  near  your  home  ?  How  about  the  knives, 
forks,  dishes,  and  spoons  ?     How  about  the  clothes  that  you  wear  ? 

Because  of  the  climate,  water  power,  soil,  or  for  some  other 
reason,  each  part  of  the  country  is  especially  fitted  for  producing 
one  or  several  things,  as  eastern  Kansas  for  grain,  and  western 
Kansas  for  stock,  northern  Maine  for  lumber,  etc.  Indeed,  most  of 
the  articles  used  in  each  part  of  the  country  must  be  brought  from 
other  places.  Name  the  materials  that  the  Montana  ranchman  needs 
from  the  Southern  planter  ;  from  New  England  ;  from  Minneapolis 
and  Chicago.  Upon  what  parts  of  the  United  States  are  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Florida  dependent  ?  What  do  they  supply  in  return  ?  Make 
a  list  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  your  house,  and^ 
as  far  as  possible,  determine  where  each  one  may  have  come  from. 
The  different  parts  of  the  country  are  of  vital  importance  to  one 
another,  much  as  different  parts  of  the  body  are. 

Relation  to  our  Territories  and  Dependencies.  —  Despite  our  broad 
territory  and  enormous  number  of  products,  there  are  some  neces- 
sary articles  that  are  either  entirely  lacking,  or  cannot  be  produced 
in  sufficient  quantities  within  our  own  borders.  Name  a  few  (see 
table  of  imports,  p.  524).     Mention  some  that  we  are  therefore  glad 


282  NORTH   AMERICA 

to  receive  from  Alaska,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  the  Philippines.  Mention  others  that  they  likewise  are  glad  to 
receive  from  us.  State,  then,  how  the  United  States  and  its  de- 
pendencies are  of  advantage  to  one  another. 

Other  Countries  of  North  America.  —  The  principal  industries  in 
southern  Canada  and  Newfoundland  are  necessarily  similar  to  those 
in  the  northern  United  States.  What  about  agriculture  there  ?  (p. 
19T.)  Where  is  coal  mined?  (p.  199.)  Precious  metal  ?  (p.  199.) 
What  about  grazing  ?  (p.  197.)  Lumbering?  (p.  194.)  Fishing 
and  sealing?  (pp.  195,  196.)  Compare  the  raw  products  of  southern 
Canada  with  those  of  our  Northern  States.  Name  and  locate  the 
principal  cities ;  the  leading  trade  route.  Mention  the  chief  kinds 
of  manufacturing.     (For  above,  see  pp.  199-202.) 

Describe  the  surface  of  Mexico  (p.  206).  The  climate  (p.  207). 
What  are  the  agricultural  products  from  its  arid  plateaus  ?  (p. 
209.)  From  its  lowlands?  (p.  209.)  From  the  slopes  between? 
(p.  209.)  Tell  about  the  forests  of  Mexico  (p.  210).  The  mining 
(p.  210).  Give  some  reasons  why  there  is  little  manufacturing  in 
that  country  (p.  212).     Locate  the  principal  cities. 

Name  the  five  republics  of  Central  America.  Describe  the  sur- 
face of  the  country  and  the  climate  (p.  213).  Name  the  principal 
industries  (p.  213).  Tell  about  canals  across  the  isthmus  (p.  214). 
Mention  the  largest  islands  among  the  West  Indies.  What  are  their 
chief  industries?  (pp.  214-216.)  What  industries  in  the  United 
States  are  not  found  in  Canada?  In  Mexico  ?  In  Central  America? 
What  industries  in  any  one  of  the  latter  countries  are  not  found  in 
the  United  States  ? 

Our  Relation  to  Other  Countries.  —  The  United  States  produces  a 
far  greater  quantity  of  some  materials  than  can  be  consumed  at 
home,  while  other  important  articles  must  come  wholly,  or  in  part, 
from  abroad.  Give  examples  of  each.  If  we  could  not  secure  a 
market  for  our  products  in  foreign  lands,  we  should  suffer  seriously ; 
and,  if  the  foreign  countries  could  not  be  induced  to  provide  us  with 
what  we  need,  we  should  suffer  again.  Other  countries  are  in  the 
same  condition.  Show  how  that  is  true  of  Canada ;  of  Mexico. 
There  is  excellent  reason,  therefore,  for  a  constant  exchange  of  goods 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  How  does  the  size  of  our  country 
give  us  a  great  advantage  in  this  respect  ? 

We  sell  more  goods  to  Great  Britain  than  to  any  other  foreign 
land.      In  fact,  hundreds  of  millions  of   dollars'  worth  of  cotton, 


BEVIEW  288 

wheat,  flour,  cattle,  corn,  meat,  and  oil  are  sent  to  that  country  every 
year  (see  table  of  exports,  p.  624).  We  receive,  in  return,  large 
quantities  of  woolen,  cotton,  and  rubber  goods,  and  articles  made  of 
vegetable  fibers,  hides,  and  skins  (see  table  of  imports  page  524). 
Trade  is  carried  on  in  the  same  manner  with  Germany,  France,  and 
other  countries.  The  goods  that  we  send  forth  are  called  exports^ 
and  those  brought  in,  imports.  Examine  the  tables  of  exports  and 
imports  on  pp.  524  and  525  to  see  what  we  send  away  and  receive, 
as  well  as  the  countries  with  which  we  trade. 

More  than  half  of  all  our  exports  and  imports  are  sent  by  way  of 
New  York  alone.  Why  ?  Other  ports,  next  in  importance,  are  ;  Bos- 
ton, Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  total  value  of  our  exports  in  1907  was  11,988,989,387 ; 
of  our  imports,  11,591,878,298. 

Some  imports  are  permitted  to  enter  the  country  free ;  but  upon  most 
of  them  there  is  a  duty,  that  is,  a  charge  for  the  privilege  of  entering  the 
country.  This  duty  is  a  source  of  income  or  revenue  for  the  government. 
It  is  also  intended  to  serve  as  a  protection  to  home  industries  by  prevent- 
ing foreign  products  from  being  sold  in  our  country  at  a  lower  rate  than 
we  can  produce  them.  However,  this  sometimes  causes  great  hardship. 
For  example,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  living  even  on  the  very 
border  of  Canada,  cannot  buy  from  that  country  such  articles  as  lumber 
and  wood  pulp  without  paying  a  duty  upon  them.  This  causes  us  to  pay 
a  higher  price  for  many  articles  than  we  would  have  to  pay  if  no  duty 
were  placed  upon  them.  Therefore,  the  boundary  line  between  two  neigh- 
boring countries  is  often  of  real  importance  as  a  barrier  to  free  trade. 

Transportation  Routes. — The  chief  inland  water  routes  for  trans- 
portation of  goods  have  often  been  mentioned  (Fig.  238).  What 
are  they  ?  About  twice  as  much  freight  is  carried  over  the  Great 
Lakes  as  on  the  Mississippi  system.  Mention  some  of  the  principal 
kinds  carried  on  each.  The  fact  that  the  Great  Lakes  system  extends 
so  far  east  and  west  is  of  great  importance.  This  route,  by  furnish- 
ing a  cheap  means  of  transportation  to  the  Eastern  coast,  opens  up  a 
very  productive  region  in  a  favorable,  temperate  climate.  Upon 
reaching  the  coast  these  goods  may  readily  be  shipped  to  Europe, 
our  principal  foreign  market. 

It  is  largely  because  of  these  facts  that  most  of  the  people  of  the 
country  are  living  either  along  the  northeastern  coast  or  else  from 
there  westward  to  the  Mississippi.  On  Figure  208  find  the  center 
of  population  in  the  United  States. 


tH  NORTH   AMEBIC  A 

Figures  227  and  237  show  an  enormous  number  of  railways  in  the 
United  States.  They  now  carry  fully  three  times  as  much  freight 
as  all  the  water  routes  together.  In  what  part  of  the  country  are 
most  of  them  found  ?  Why  there  ?  Which  quarter  is  next  best 
supplied  with  them  ?  Which  portion  has  fewest  lines  ?  How  does 
the  location  of  lines  on  this  figure  compare  with  the  location  of  cities 
on  Figure  208  ?  What  about  the  direction  of  a  majority  of  the  rail- 
way lines  ?  Count  the  number  of  railways  that  extend  east  and  west 
across  the  western  half  of  the  continent  (Fig.  227).  In  what  city 
on  the  Pacific  coast  does  each  of  these  terminate  ? 

Influence  of  Steam  and  Electricity.  —  The  steam  used  upon  the 
waterways  and  railways  has  been  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors 
in  populating  and  developing  our  country.  A  century  ago  it  re- 
quired two  days  to  travel  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia,  and  six 
days  from  New  York  to  Boston.  In  the  latter  case  only  two  trips 
per  week  were  made  by  stage.  The  journeys  were  not  only  very 
tiresome,  but  were  also  filled  with  hardships,  and  often  with  dan- 
gers. There  were  bat  thirteen  daily  papers  in  the  United  States, 
and  neither  papers  nor  books  could  be  sent  by  mail.  Letters  cost 
from  six  to  twenty-five  cents,  according  to  the  distance,  and,  as  the 
expense  of  carrying  them  was  so  great,  they  were  not  sent  from  the 
smaller  towns  until  a  number  were  collected. 

Now  we  can  travel  as  far  in  an  hour  as  formerly  in  a  day,  and 
with  much  more  convenience.  There  are  fully  two  thousand  daily 
papers,  and  these,  as  well  as  letters,  may  be  sent  quickly  and  cheaply 
to  every  section  of  the  country.  We  can  even  send  a  telegraph  mes- 
sage to  a  distant  point  in  an  instant,  and  can  talk  by  telephone  with 
a  person  hundreds  of  miles  away,  even  recognizing  the  tones  of  his 
voice.  To  one  of  our  ancestors  of  a  century  ago  either  one  of  these 
wonders,  to  which  we  are  now  so  accustomed,  would  have  seemed  an 
utter  impossibility. 

Influence  of  Modern  Inventions  on  Mode  of  Life.  —  The  effect  of 
such  a  mighty  change  is  seen  in  every  direction.  Each  year  thou- 
sands of  car  loads  of  fruit  are  shipped  to  Eastern  cities  from  Califor- 
nia. If  there  were  no  railways,  how  could  it  reach  these  cities  ? 
What,  then,  would  be  the  effect  on  southern  California  ?  Also,  how 
could  the  corn  of  the  Central  States  be  marketed  ?  And  how  could 
furniture,  sugar,  etc.,  be  brought  to  the  Western  farmer's  door  ? 
Trace  other  results  of  this  change. 

If  we  were  suddenly  deprived  of  our  quick  transportation,  within 


REVIEW  Sft6 

a  few  days  there  would  be  a  famine  in  every  large  city.  Even  now, 
when  heavy  falls  of  snow  block  the  trains  for  only  a  day  or  two,  the 
supply  of  milk,  meat,  and  other  necessities  quickly  runs  low,  and  the 
prices  rise  to  several  times  their  ordinary  value. 

If  we  had  no  railway  trains,  there  might  also  be  extensive  famines 
from  time  to  time  over  large  areas  of  country,  as  there  were  in  Europe 
in  the  olden  times,  and  as  there  are  even  at  present  in  China.  Why 
especially  in  China  ?  As  it  is,  however,  hundreds  of  articles  of  food 
and  clothing  are  quickly  brought  from  distant  points  at  a  trifling  cost. 
Mention  several  such  articles.  No  one  locality  is  in  danger  of  suf- 
fering from  want  of  food,  because,  if  the  supply  fails  there,  it  is 
easily  obtained  from  other  sections. 

The  effect  of  steam  and  electricity  on  the  industries  and  inhabit- 
ants of  cities  is  striking.  Persons  living  scores  of  miles  away  often 
do  much  of  their  shopping  in  the  cities.  Also,  owing  to  trolley  lines, 
elevated  railways,  and  other  means  of  rapid  transit,  those  engaged 
in  manufacture  or  commerce  are  enabled  to  live  many  miles  distant 
from  their  places  of  work  and  thus  secure  more  healthful  homes  in 
the  suburbs.  Because  so  many  people  are  able  to  have  their  homes 
in  the  suburbs,  the  cities  are  not  nearly  so  overcrowded  as  they  other- 
wise would  be. 

Influence  of  our  Surroundings  on  Education  and  Government.  — 
When  our  Union  was  formed,  more  than  a  century  ago,  many  wise 
persons  believed  it  an  almost  impossible  experiment.  Our  popula- 
tion was  scattered  over  so  many  hundred  miles  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  (Fig.  32)  that  people  living  in  one  part  were  apt  to  know  and 
care  little  about  those  in  another  part  far  away.  It  seemed  probable 
that  quarrels  and  wars  would  arise  as  a  result  of  differences  of  opin- 
ion, and  therefore  that  our  republican  government  might  be  dissolved 
into  several  governments. 

Nevertheless  our  boundaries  have  been  so  enlarged  as  to  include 
far  more  territory  than  was  originally  thought  possible  (Fig.  240). 

Aside  from  that,  more  than  twenty-three  million  foreigners  have 
settled  in  our  country  since  1821,  bringing  to  our  shores  all  the  prin- 
cipal races  of  mankind  (see  Appendix,  p.  x),  and  many  of  the  lead- 
ing languages,  religions,  and  political  beliefs  of  the  world ;  but  in 
spite  of  all  this  we  have  kept  in  such  close  touch  with  one  another 
that  our  Union  has  grown  stronger  and  stronger. 

Each  day,  by  rail  and  water,  articles  are  being  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  country.     In  all  the  states  the  people  read  the  same  news  every 


286 


NORTH  AMERICA 


morning,  and  whatever  books  are  found  especially  valuable  in  one 
section  are  quickly  made  known  in  others.  Thus  we  not  only  enjoy 
far  better  opportunities  for  education  than  formerly,  but  we  learn  to 
know  one  another ;  we  have  the  same  thoughts,  and  we  feel  a  mutual 
sympathy.  So  far  as  meeting  and  understanding  one  another  are 
concerned,  our  country  is  really  far  smaller  than  it  was  a  hundred 
years  ago ;  we  are  living  together  like  one  very  large  family. 

It  has  been  a  difficult  task  to  convert  people  from  so  many 
quarters  of  the  globe  to  one  common  product,  called  Americans, 
who  believe  heartily  in  our  republican  government  (p.  37).  But 
the  attempt  has  not  been  a  failure.  Many  have  gone  to  the  farms, 
where  they  have  helped  to  supply  the  raw  products;  others  have 
gone  to  the  mining  regions ;  but  great  numbers  have  settled  in  the 
cities,  where  they  are  chiefly  engaged  in  work  connected  with  manu- 
facturing and  commerce.  Some  are  densely  ignorant;  but  the  great 
majority  steadily  improve  in  condition,  adopt  the  American  customs 
and  ideas,  and  become  good  citizens. 


Fig.  R. 
Ostrich  Farm,  San  Jos^,  California. 


Trincipal  Manufacturing  Regions 
f  United  States, 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


,0     100  200  300  400 


Fig.  234. 


Massachusetts. 


J^ennaylvania. 


Sf^Z;i67^99 


I^ewYoHc 


Rhodeld. 


$36,f7(293 


$6X0OJi6/S  fjSJdJiOSJ 


ATjr 


Fig.  235. 

Value  of  the  manufacture  of  textiles  (cotton,  wool,  etc.)  in  the  five  leading 
textile  manufacturing  states. 


New  York 


$Qi5  76.701.991 


Pennsylvania.  JWnoix 


46jaOJM6.J>^0 


$sflee,7jri7m 


Ohio. 


i3>9Si3az;>6i  im(K»ts,tfi 


Moix 


Fig.  236. 
Wealth  in  dollars  of  the  five  wealthiest  states. 


mmm 
i 


^ 


110 

in  nil  ^ 


Fig.  8. 


Rebuilding  San  Francisco.    Looking  west  on  Geary  Street  from  Market  Street. 

February,  1908. 


Fig.  238. 
Navigable  rivers  represented  by  heavy  lines. 


MiddhAtkmtic  States. 


NewEngStates^      \CentmZ States. 


Fia.  239. 


The  figures  represent  the  number  of  miles  of  railway  for  every  one  hundred 
square  miles  of  territory^in  each  of  the  five  groups  of  states. 


Fig.  240. 


Map  to  show  when  and  how  the  United  States  obtained  its  territoiy. 

288 


Part  II 
GENEEAL  GEOGRAPHY 


5X»^c 


I.     THE   EARTH'S   MOVEMENTS 

Form  and  Size.  —  The  earth  is  a  sphere  having  a  circumference 
of  about  twenty-five  thousand  miles,  and  a  diameter  of  nearly  eight 
thousand  miles.  It  is  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles,  however,  so  that 
the  line  extending  through  the  center,  from  pole  to  pole,  —  called  the 
earth's  axis,  —  is  a  little  shorter  than  that  extending  in  the  opposite 
direction  at  the  equator. 

The  earth  is  known  to  be  round,  not  only  because  people  have  traveled 
around  it,  but  also  because  its  shadow,  as  seen  in  an  eclipse,  is  always 
round.  Show  how  it  is  true  that  a  sphere  is  the  only  body  that  will  always 
cast  a  round  shadow.  Give  another  proof  of  the  spherical  form  of  the 
earth. 

Daily  Motion.  —  The  earth  is  rapidly  rotating,  that  is,  turning  on 
one  of  its  diameters,  called  the  axis.  When  we  glance  out  of  the 
window  of  a  moving  car,  the  objects  we  pass  appear  to  be  moving  in 
the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  we  are  traveling.  It  seems 
as  though  we  were  standing  still.  In  a  similar  way  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  makes  the  sun  appear  to  rise  and  set,  and  for  a  long  time 
people  believed  that  it  was  the  sun  that  moved,  and  not  the  earth. 

In^what  direction  must  the  earth  rotate,  since  the  sun  appears  to  move, 
from  east  to  west  ?  The  period  of  time  required  for  one  rotation  is  called 
a  day.  Since  the  circumference  of  the  earth  at  the  equator  is  about 
twenty-five  thousand  miles,  how  far  does  a  point  on  the  equator  move  in 
an  hour  ?     In  a  minute  ? 

By  rotating  a  globe  or  an  apple  in  the  sunlight  show  how  day  and 
night  are  caused  on  the  earth.  Hold  the  sphere  still ;  what  would  be  true 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  earth  if  it  did  not  rotate  at  all  ?  What  might  be 
the  effect  upon  life  on  the  earth  if  the  same  side  were  always  toward 
the  sun  ? 


240 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  241. 

Some  of  the  Eskimos  whose  homes  are  in  the  frigid 
north.  The  mothers  carry  the  babies  in  fur  hoods 
on  their  backs. 


Yearly  Motion.  —  There  are  other  variations  of  our  light  and 

heat  besides  those  due  to  the  earth's  rotation.     For  instance,  if  we 

could  spend  a  summer  with 
the  Eskimos  in  Alaska  we 
should  find  weeks  of  con- 
stant day,i  and  be  able  to 
see  at  midnight  (Fig.  T)  as 
well  as  at  midday.  Late 
in  the  summer,  the  sun 
begins  to  set,  and  finally  it 
fails  to  appear  even  at  noon. 
Then  it  becomes  bitterly- 
cold  (Fig.  241). 

On  the  other  hand,  in 
Central  America  the  sun 
reappears  every  morning  in 
the  year;    and  every  noon 

it  is   almost  directly  overhead,  while  for  a  part  of  the  year  it  is 

exactly  overhead.     No  snow  and  ice  are  seen,  and  the  climate  fs  so 

warm,  even  during  the  winter,  that  the  inhabitants  wear  as  few  clothes 

as  possible.     Indeed,  some  savages 

in  such  hot  countries  wear  almost 

none  (Fig.  242). 

Even  where   each   of   us   lives, 

the  period  of  daylight  and  the  tem- 
perature are  changing  from  week  to 

week.     Describe   these  changes  as 

you  yourself  have  observed  them. 
The  causes  of  these  changes  are 

indicated  in  Fig.  243.     There  the 

earth  is  represented  on  September  23 

as  receiving  sunlight  from  pole  to 

pole.     On  December  21  the  north 

pole  is  shrouded  in  darkness,  while 

the  south  pole  (which  is  shut  off 

from   our   view   in   the   figure)    is 

within  the  light.     On  March  21  the 

sunlight  again  extends  from  pole  to 

pole ;  and  on  June  21  the  north  pole 
1  Exactly  at  the  north  pole  there  are  six  months  of  day  and  six  months  of  nigrht 


Fig.  242. 

Savages  whose  homes  are  in  the  tropical 
zone.  Contrast  their  dress  with  that 
of  the  Eskimos  (Fig.  241). 


THE   EARTH'S    MOVEMENTS 


241 


lies  fully  in  the  light,  while  the  south  pole  is  in  darkness.  In  other 
words,  the  earth  has  a  yearly  motion  around  the  sun,  —  called  its 
revolution^  —  and  it  is  the  various  positions  that  it  takes  with  refer- 
ence to  the  sun,  while  on  this  journey,  that  cause  our  changing 
length  of  day  and  our  seasons. 

Although  the  sun  is  ninety-three  million  miles  from  us,  the  earth 
is  moving  at  such  a  tremendous  rate  that  it  completes  one  journey 
around  the  sun,  or  one  revolution^  in  almost  exactly  365  days.  This 
explains  how  we  get  our  year.  The  almost  circular  path  that  thj^ 
earth  follows  in  this  revolution  is  called  its  orbit. 


Fig.  243. 
To  illustrate  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun.  The  shaded  portio7  rtpresents 
night.  The  end  of  the  axis  around  which  the  earth  rotates  is  the  point  whe-e  the  lines 
come  together  (the  north  pole) .  At  what  date  is  this  pole  turned  toward  the  san  ?  Away 
from  it?  Neither  towards  nor  away  from  it?  What  portions  of  the  earth  do  the  sun's 
rays  reach  at  each  of  these  times  ? 

The  Attraction  of  Gravitation.  — In  its  revolution  the  earth  is  moving 
at  the  rate  of  more  than  one  and  a  half  million  miles  per  day.  What 
speed !  And  at  the  same  time  it  is  whirling  or  rotating  rapidly  on  its 
axis,  as  already  explained  (see  Primary  Book,  p.  116). 


242 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


As  in  the  case  of  the  earth's  rotation,  one  might  ask  (Primary  Book, 
p.  116),  Why  are  we  not  swept  from  the  earth  by  the  wind  ?  The  answer, 
as  before,  is  that  the  air,  and  everything  else  upon  the  earth,  is  drawn 
toward  it  and  held  in  place  by  the  force  of  gravity,  so  that  all  travel 
together  in  the  journey  around  the  sun. 

If  the  earth  is  revolving  at  such  a  fearful  speed,  why  does  not  the 
earth  itself  fly  away  into  space  ?  As  a  stone  swinging  round  at  the  end  of 
a  string  flies  off  when  the  string  breaks,  so  it  might  seem  that  the  earth 
would  fly  away,  since  there  appears  to  be  nothing  holding  it  to  the  sun. 

But  there  is  something  to  hold  it.  It  is  not  a  string  nor  a  rope,  to  be 
sure,  but  something  far  stronger.  The  sun  is  very  much  larger  than  the 
earth,  in  fact,  over  a  million  times  as  large,  and  attracts  the  earth  to  it, 
as  the  force  of  gravity  attracts  men  and  houses  to  the  earth.  This  attrao- 
Hon  of  gravitation,  which  the  sun  exerts  upon  the  earth,  is  what  prevents 
the  latter  from  flying  far  off  into  space ;  it  holds  the  earth  as  firmly  as  the 
string  holds  the  stone. 

Length  of  Day  and  Night;  the  Seasons.  — On  September  23  the 
sun's  rays  are  vertical  at  the  equator  (Fig.  243),  i.e»  directly  over 
the  heads  of  the  people  living  along  that  line.     Then  the  days  and 

nights   are   equal   over  all   the 
"" — ^*  earth.     This  time  is  called  the 

autumnal  equinox  (the  latter 
from  two  words  meaning  equal 
and  nigh€). 

On  December  21  the  sun's 
rays  are  vertical  at  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn^  and  all  the  region 
included  in  the  Antarctic  Circle 
is  within  the  light.  That  is  the 
date  for  the  beginning  of  winter 
in  our  hemisphere  and  for  our 
shortest  day.  After  that,  on 
March  21,  the  sun's  rays  are 
again  vertical  at  the  equator. 
This  time,  called  the  vernal  equi- 
nox^ is  the  beginning  of  our 
spring.  Then  our  days  gradu- 
ally lengthen  until  June  21,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  over 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  light  up  all  the  region  within  the  Arctic 
Circle.     That  is  the  beginning  of  our  summer. 

The  Zones.  —  The  sun  gives  heat  as  well  as  light,  and  the  direc- 
tion of  its  rays  determines  the  boundaries  of  the  zones.     In  Fig.  244 


A  map  of  the  zones.     Make  a  drawing  similar 
to  this. 


THE    EARTH'S    MOVEMENTS 


248 


the  Torrid  Zone  marks  that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  over  which 
the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  at  some  time  in  every  year.  On  that 
account  it  is  very  hot  there.  The  north  frigid  and  south  frigid  zones 
mark  the  areas  about  the  poles  that  lie  entirely  in  the  light  at  one 
period  and  in  the  dark  at  another.  But  the  sun's  rays  are  always 
very  slanting  there,  so  that  the  temperature  is  always  cold. 

Show  the  boundaries  of  the  temperate  zones,  and  explain  why 
these  zones  are  called  temperate. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  What  is  the  earth's  axis  ?  (2)  What  was  formerly 
believed  about  the  earth's  movement?  (3)  In  what  direction  does  the  earth 
rotate?  (4)  Tell  about  variations  of  light  and  heat,  (a)  among  the  Eskimos, 
(b)  in  Central  America,  (c)  at  your  home.  (5)  What  other  motion  besides  rota- 
tion has  the  earth?  (6)  What  determines  the  length  of  our  year?  (7)  Why  do 
we  not  notice  the  rapid  movement  of  the  earth?  (8)  What  prevents  the  earth 
from  flying  off  into  space?  (9)  Tell  about  the  direction  of  the  sun's  rays. 
(10)  On  December  21.  (11)  March  21.  (12)  June  21.  (13)  Name  the  zones, 
and  give  reasons  for  their  boundaries. 


Fig.  T. 
Sunset  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  11.30  p.m. 


18— A  G 


II.     WINDS   AND   RAIN 
Winds 

Review.  —  Our  previous  study  of  geography  has  shown  that 
very  regular  winds  blow  over  a  considerable  part  of  North  America. 
For  example,  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  southern 
Mexico  receive  their  winds  generally  from  the  northeast^  while  on 


Fig.  245. 
To  illustrate  how  the  air  moves  in  a  room  heated  by  a  stove. 

the  western  side  of  the  continent,  all  the  way  from  San  Francisco 
to  Alaska,  they  blow  quite  regularly  from  a  westerly  quarter.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  the  winds 
are  irregular  in  direction,  although  prevailing  from  the  west.  Let 
us  examine  into  the  causes  of  these  movements  of  the  atmosphere. 

Effect  of  a  Stove.  —  As  a  beginning  of  the  inquiry,  we  will 
consider  the  currents  of  air  produced  by  a  hot  stove  in  a  room 
(Fig.  245).     As  the  air  near  the  stove  is  warmed,  it  expands  and 

244 


WINDS    AND    BAIN  245 

grows  lighter.  Then  the  cooler  air  settles  down  and  flows  in, 
forcing  upward  that  which  has  been  warmed.  The  latter  grows 
cooler  in  contact  with  the  cool  ceiling  and  walls  of  the  room ;  and, 
being  made  denser  and  heavier  on  that  account,  it  again  settles 
toward  the  floor  and  then  once  more  moves  toward  the  stove.  In 
such  a  room  you  can  easily  observe  how  much  warmer  the  air  is 
near  the  ceiling,  where  it  has  risen  from  the  stove,  than  near  the 
floor  at  some  distance  from  the  stove. 

Winds  of  the  Earth.  —  The  greater  winds  of  the  earth  may  be 
compared  to  this  movement  of  air  in  a  room,  the  torrid  zone,  warmed 
by  the  sun's  rays,  taking  the  cauw. 

place  of  the  stove.     There,  ^^^^^^M^^^   ' 

owing  to  the  torrid  heat,  the  /pte^?^^^fc^^^^^^ 

atmosphere   becomes    ex-  A{^'/C 


panded   and    light,      ihe  i/j/-^  '  JpA 

heavier  air  to  the  north  and  \iL 


south  flows  in,  pushing  the   ^^p^3ii____ 

light  air  away  and  produc-  ^'i«-  ^^• 

ing   winds,   known   as  the   Diagram  to  show,  by  arrows,  the  movement  of  the 
,  .      ,      ,  T-i .         ^  A  r.^  greater  winds  of  the  earth. 

trade  winds  (Fig.  246), 

which  begin  in  the  temperate  zones,  hundreds  of  miles  away. 
Since  the  heated  air  must  escape  somewhere,  it  rises  far  above 
the  surface,  and  then  moves  back  in  the  same  direction  from  which 
it  came,  forming  the  return  trades  or  anti-trade  winds  (Fig.  246). 
The  atmosphere  extends  many  miles  above  the  earth,  so  that  there  is 
plenty  of  room  for  two  winds  blowing  in  opposite  directions,  one 
above  the  other. 

In  Cuba,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  elsewhere,  where  the  trade  winds 
at  the  surface  are  blowing  toward  the  southwest,  one  notices  that  the 
clouds  far  up  in  the  sky  are  steadily  borne  in  the  opposite  direction  by 
the  anti-trades.  Also,  when  volcanoes  in  Central  America  have  been  in 
eruption,  the  ashes  that  were  blown  out  from  them  have  been  carried 
hundreds  of  miles  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  prevailing  trade 
winds  at  the  surface. 

Being  cooled  on  account  of  its  great  height,  the  air  of  the  anti- 
trades slowly  settles,  some  of  it  coming  to  the  surface  at  about  a 
third  of  the  distance  to  the  poles.  There  it  spreads  out,  a  part  con- 
tinuing on  toward  the  poles,  a  part  returning  to  the  equator  as  the 
trade  winds  (Fig.  246). 

As  you  see,  the  correspondence  between  these  currents  in  the 


246  GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

atmosphere  and  those  in  the  room  is  quite  close.  In  both  cases  air 
moves  in  toward  a  heated  place,  then  up,  then  outward  and  down, 
and  once  more  inward  toward  the  heated  part.  Make  a  drawing  to 
illustrate  these  four  directions  of  movement  of  the  air. 

Effect  of  Rotation.  —  There  are  differences,  however,  and  one  of  them 
is  especially  important.  In  the  case  of  the  room,  the  currents  move 
directly  toward  the  stove ;  then,  after  rising,  directly  away  from  it.  If  the 
earth  stood  perfectly  still,  the  trade  winds  would  doubtless  blow  directly 
toward  the  equator  from  the  north  and  south  and  the  others  directly 
away  from  it. 

The  daily  rotation  of  the  earth,  from  west  to  east,  greatly  interferes 
with  that  movement.  Because  of  rotation,  the  trade  winds  are  turned, 
or  deflected,  from  their  straight  course  toward  the  equator.  Those  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  are  turned  to  their  right,  so  that  they  come  from  the 
7iortheast;  and  those  in  the  southern  hemisphere  are  turned  toward  their 
left,  and  therefore  come  from  the  southeast. 

The  direction  of  the  anti-trades  is  also  changed  toward  the  right  in 
the  northern  hemisphere",  where  they  blow  from  the  southwest,  and 
toward  the  left  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  where  they  blow  from  the 
northwest.  Thus  the  anti-trades  blow  over  the  same  route  as  the  trade 
winds,  but  in  the  opposite  direction.  We  can  only  state  the  facts  here, 
for  the  explanation  is  far  too  difficult  to  give. 

Wind  Belts.  —  Now  we  see  why  the  West  Indies,  Central  America, 
and  southern  Mexico  receive  such  regular  winds  from  the  northeast, 
for  they  lie  in  the  range  of  the  trade  winds  just  described.  The 
prevailing  west  winds  of  the  Pacific  coast  are  a  part  of  the  air  of  the 
anti-trades  that  has  settled  to  the  surface  and  is  moving  on  in  a  great 
whirl  around  the  poles.  This  region  is  known  as  the  belt  of  prevailing 
westerlies,  because  the  air  moves  so  steadily  from  a  westerly  quarter. 

If  you  watch  the  higher  clouds  you  will  find,  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  that  they  are  moving  from  the  west  toward  the  east ; 
and  the  winds  at  the  surface  are  also  more  often  from  the  west  than 
from  any  other  quarter.  This  section,  including  northern  United 
States  and  Canada,  in  which  the  prevailing  winds  are  so  nearly  from 
the  west,  is  known  as  the  region  of  prevailing  westerlies. 

What  has  been  said  about  the  winds  of  North  America  applies, 
with  some  exceptions,  to  other  parts  of  the  world ;  in  other  words, 
there  are  several  belts  of  regular  winds  extending  around  the  earth. 
Figure  249  shows  these  very  clearly.  Point  out  the  belt  of  trade 
windB  north  of  the  equator.  Point  out  the  prevailing  westerlies. 
Point  out  the  two  corresponding  belts  of  wind  on  the  south  side  of 


WINDS    AND    BAIN 


24T 


the  equator.     Notice  how  much  more  definitely  these  are  all  shown 
over  the  ocean  than  over  the  land. 


Winds  are  much  more  steady  on  the  ocean  than  on  the  land  for  sev- 
eral reasons^  the  principal  one  being  that  the  temperature  of  the  water 
does  not  change  so  quickly  as  that  of  the  land.  On  land  one  place  may 
become  much  warmer  than  another  not  far  away,  and  then  winds  blow 
toward  the  warmer  section.  This  often  changes  the  direction  of  the  regu- 
lar winds. 

So  steady  are  the  prevailing  westerlies  over  the  ocean,  that,  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  where  there  is  little  land,  they  almost  always  blow 
from  the  west.  Indeed^  it  is  said  that  vessels,  choosing  a  course  south  of 
Africa  and  South  America, 
can  sail  around  the  world 
with  fair  winds  almost  all 
the  way,  if  they  go  toward 
the  east ;  but  if  they  sail  in 
the  opposite  direction,  the 
winds  are  against  them. 


Fig.  247. 

Diagram  to  show  the  position  of  the  trade-wind  belts 
and  the  belt  of  calms  in  summer.    Compare  with 

Figure  248. 


All  these  belts  of  wind 
owe  their  existence  to  the 
differing  temperatures  of 
the  several  zones ;  and 
since  the  sun,  which  is 
the  cause  of  these  zones, 
has  shone  for  millions  of 
years,  and  will  probably 
continue  to  shine  for  millions  more,  we  may  be  certain  that  these 
great  winds  are  permanent  winds.  The  currents  of  air  in  a  room 
cease  when  the  stove  gFows  cold  ;  but,  for  ages  to  come,  the  sun  will 
heat  the  torrid  zone  more  than  the  temperate.  Thus  the  trade  winds 
will  be  kept  in  motion  day  and  night,  winter  and  summer,  as  they 
now  are,  and  as  they  were  when  they  helped  Columbus  on  his  ven- 
turesome voyage  across  the  Atlantic. 

Belt  of  Calms  and  Belt  of  Horse  Latitudes.  —  Besides  the  four 
belts  of  winds  just  mentioned  there  are  three  belts  of  calms  and 
light,  variable  winds.  As  the  trade  winds  approach  the  central 
line  of  the  heated  belt,  or  the  heat  equator,  they  travel  more 
slowly.  Then,  owing  to  expansion  from  heat,  and  to  pressure 
from  the  colder  air  behind,  the  air  rises  over  a  broad  area  to  a 
3freat  height.      In  this  belt  of  rising  air,  whatever  winds  are  felt 


248 


QENEBAL    GEOGRAPHY 


are    light    and    changeable,   and  calms    often    prevail ;  hence  the 
name  belt  of  calms,  as  shown  in  Figures  246  and  249.     The  width 

of    this     belt    is    several 
hundred  miles. 

Northern  Mexico  and 
southern  California  are 
situated  in  another  belt  of 
light  winds  with  frequent 
calms.  Here,  however,  as 
stated  before  (p.  245),  the 
air  of  the  anti-trades  is 
settling  toward  the  earth, 
a  part  to  return  as  trade 
winds  to  the  belt  of  calms, 
and  a  part  to  continue  on- 
ward as  the  prevailing 
westerlies.  This  is  known  as  the  region  of  the  horse  latitudes.'^ 
Point  out  the  belt  on  Figures  246  and  249.  Show  the  corre- 
sponding belt  on  the  south  side  of  the  equator. 

Effect  of  Revolution.  —  The  belt  of  most  intense  heat  is  not  always 
in  exactly  the  same  part  of  the  earth,  being  north  of  the  equator  in  June, 
when  the  sun  is  vertical  at  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  south  of  it  in  Decem^ 
her,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  at  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  This 
causes  all  these  belts  to  change  their  position  somewhat,  being  farther 
north  in  our  summer  than  in  our  winter  (Figs.  247  and  248).  The  effects 
of  this  fact  are  very  important,  as  we  shall  see  (p.  254). 


Fig.  248. 

Diagram  to  show  the  position  of  the  belt  of  calms  and 
the  trade  winds  in  winter.    Compare  with  Figure  247. 


Rain 

Causes  for  Rain.  —  Knowing  the  wind"  belts  that  encircle  the 
earth,  we  have  a  key  to  the  principal  rain  belts  ;  for  winds  are  the 
water  carriers  of  the  earth.  Water  which  is  evaporated  from  the 
surface  of  the  oceans  and  lands  is  borne  along  in  the  air.  As 
rain  or  snow  it  descends  to  the  earth,  abundantly  along  most  coasts, 
and,  usually,  less  liberally  toward  the  interior  of  the  continents. 

It  is  an  important  fact  that  there  can  be  more  water  vapor  in  warm 
than  in  cool  air.     Therefore,  whenever  air  is  cooled  sufficiently  some  of 

1  Called  horse  latitudes  because  sailing  vessels,  carrying  horses  from  New  England 
to  the  West  Indies  in  the  early  days,  were  so  delayed  by  the  calms  that  the  horses  had 
to  be  thrown  overboard  when  the  drinking  water  gave  out. 


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WINDS    AND    RAIN  251 

the  water  vapor  which  it  bears  is  condensed.  For  example,  vapor 
condenses  on  an  ice-water  pitcher  because  the  air  next  it  is  cooled; 
and  dew  forms  on  grass  when  the  air  near  the  ground  grows  cool  in 
the  evening.  In  a  like  manner  the  vapor  in  our  breath  forms  a  little 
cloud  when  the  breath  in  winter  is  cooled  by  mixture  with  the  cold 
outside  air. 

Rain  is  usually  caused  by  the  cooling  of  air  which  is  rising  to 
higher  levels  and  therefore  expanding.  When  you  open  the  valve 
of  a  bicycle  tire,  the  outrushing  air  expands  and  grows  cool  ;  and  if 
you  place  your  finger  over  the  valve,  you  can  feel  the  coolness.  In 
a  similar  way,  when  air  rises  above  the  surface  of  the  earth  it  ex- 
pands because  there  is  less  air  above  to  press  upon  it.  Then  it 
grows  cool ;  and  while  doing  so,  some  of  its  vapor  may  be  condensed 
to  form  clouds  and  raindrops.  So  whenever  air  from  the  damp 
oceans  is  rising  over  highlands,  or  whenever  it  is  being  raised  over 
warm  lands  by  the  cooler  air  that  pushes  underneath,  as  in  the  belt 
of  calms,  rainfall  naturally  results.  Briefly,  —  when  air  rises,  it  ex- 
pands and  cools  ;  and  then  rain  commonly  follows. 

On  the  other  hand,  air  that  is  settling  grows  warmer,  and  instead 
of  giving  up  its  vapor,  it  becomes  dry  and  clear.  This  may  again 
be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  bicycle ;  for  when  air  is  pumped 
into  the  tire,  the  pump  becomes  warm  as  the  air  is  compressed.  In 
a  like  manner,  air  that  is  descending  toward  the  earth's  surface  is 
compressed  and  warmed  because  of  the  increasing  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  above.  Since  there  can  be  more  vapor  in  warm  than 
in  cool  air,  when  air  flows  down  the  mountain  slopes,  or  descends 
from  high  altitudes,  as  in  the  horse  latitudes,  clouds  disappear  and 
water  is  evaporated  from  the  ground.  Briefly,  —  when  air  descends^ 
it  becomes  dense  and  grows  warmer ;  then  the  sky  is  clear  and  the 
tveather  dry. 

Rain  Belts  in  North  America.  —  These  facts  have  been  well 
illustrated  in  the  rains  of  North  America.  The  northeast  trade 
winds,  having  gathered  a  large  amount  of  vapor  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  deposit  it  on  the 
windward  slopes  of  the  West  Indies,  southern  Mexico,  and  Central 
America  (Fig.  251).  The  southwestern  slopes  of  these  islands, 
however,  receive  a  smaller  quantity,  and  the  western  coast  of  Mexico 
is  therefore  arid.  The  prevailing  westerlies,  having  traveled  a 
long  distance  over  the  Pacific,  likewise  cause  heavy  rains  along  the 
western  coast  of  North  America  (Fig.  252).     But  the  land  farther 


262 


GENEBAL    GEOGRAFWY 


The  rainy  east  coast  and  arid  west  coast  of  the  trade 
wind  belts.  Also  the  rainy  belt  of  calms  of  South 
America. 


east  grows  more  arid,  be- 
cause these  winds  also  lose 
their  moisture  in  passing 
over  the  land.  Northern 
Mexico  and  southwestern 
United  States,  lying  within 
the  horse  latitudes,  where 
the  air  is  descending,  re- 
ceive very  little  rain  and 
are  arid  (Fig.  252). 

Other  Rainy  and  Arid 
Regions  of  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere.— Other  regions 
lying  within  these  belts 
illustrate  the  same  prin- 
ciples. For  example,  note 
(Fig.  251)  what  heavy 
rains    are    brought    to 

northern    South    America    by    the    northeast    trade    winds.     The 

Hawaiian  Islands,  also  lying  within  their  range,  are  kept  moist  by 

them,  especially  on 

the   windward   side 

of  the   highlands, 

just  as  in  the  West 

Indies. 

But  the  north- 
east trade  winds  of 

the  Old  World  de- 
posit little  moisture, 

as  is  clearly  shown 

by  Figures  250  and 

253.     One  reason 

is  that  they  blow 

largely  over  land, 

rather    than   over 

water ;   it  is  mostly 

level  land,  too. 

Another  very  im-  ^^°-  252- 

DOrtant  reason  is      "^^^  heavy  rainfall  where  the  prevailing  westerlies  blow  over 
"  .      .  the  rising  coast.    What  is  the  condition  farther  east  ?    What 

that  the  air   is  mov-  is  the  case  where  the  trade  winds  blow ?    Why? 


WINDS    AND    BAIN 


253 


ing  from  a  cooler  to  a  warmer  region  and  is  therefore  not  forced 
to  give  up  its  moisture.  On  the  contrary,  it  can  take  more  vapor 
and  is  steadily  evaporating  water.  Thus  the  trade  winds  are  drying 
winds  on  the  land,  and  this  accounts  for  the  desert  of  Sahara  and 
other  deserts.  Europe  is  affected  by  the  prevailing  westerlies  much 
as  western  North  America  is.  But  its  three  southern  peninsulas, 
like  southern  California,  lie  partly  within  the  horse  latitudes,  and 
their  southern  portions  are  much  affected  by  drought. 

South  of  the  Equator.  —  South  of  the  equator  we  find  the  south- 
east trade  winds  causing  heavy  rains  on  the  east  coast  of  South 
America  (Fig.  251);  then 
proceeding  across  the  con- 
tinent, they  cause  other 
heavy  rains  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Andes  ;  but 
parts  of  Peru  and  Chile 
on  the  western  side  of 
the  mountains  are  left 
to  suffer  from  drought 
although  within  sight  of 
the  greatest  ocean  in  the 
world.  Australia,  lying 
in  the  same  belt  of  winds, 
is  similar.  But  this  time 
the  loftiest  highlands  are 
close  to  the  east  coast, 
so  that  nearly  all  the 
remainder  of  the  country  suffers  for  want  of  rain  (Fig.  254). 

Belt  of  Calms.  —  The  belt  of  calms  is  the  most  rainy  of  all 
the  belts  (Figs.  251,  253,  and  25-4),  because  its  hot,  moisture-laden 
air  is  rising  and  cooling.  After  a  clear  night  in  that  region,  the 
sun  usually  rises  in  a  cloudless  sky.  As  the  morning  advances 
and  the  heat  grows  more  intense,  the  damp  air  rises  more  rapidly ; 
then  small  clouds  appear  and  grow  steadily  until  rain  falls  from 
them.  Showers  occur  practically  every  day,  increasing  in  the 
afternoon.  When  the  sun  sets  and  the  air  rises  less  actively,  the 
clouds  melt  away,  the  stars  appear,  and  the  night  is  as  clear  as 
before.  Our  hot,  muggy  summer  days,  with  heavy  thunder  showers 
in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  illustrate  the  weather  that  is  repeated 
day  after  day  in  this  belt  of  calms. 


Fig.  253. 

To  illustrate  the  desert  regions  in  the  trade-wind  and 
horse-latitude  belts  of  Africa.  Also  to  show  the 
heavy  rainfall  in  the  belt  of  calms.  Find  the  simi- 
lar belts  on  Figures  251,  252,  and  254. 


254 


GENERAL    QEOOBAPHT 


It  is  the  heavy  rain  there  that  supplies  the  dampness  necessary  for 
the  dense  jungles  of  the  tropical  forest  of  the  Amazon  valley,  Cen- 
tral Africa,  and  the  East 
Indies  (Fig.  250). 

Migration  of  Rain  Belts. 
—  The  statement  has  been 
already  made  (p.  248)  that 
the  wind  belts  shift  north- 
ward in  summer  and  south- 
ward in  winter.  One  of 
the  most  important  effects 
of  this  change  is  upon  the 
rainfall.  In  the  torrid 
zone,  for  example,  many 
places  are  within  the  belt 
of  calms  during  the  sum- 
mer of  their  hemisphere, 
and  are  swept  by  the  dry- 
ing trades  in  their  cooler 
months,  thus  dividing  the 
year  into  wet  and  dry  seasons.  The  part  of  northern  Africa  lying 
between  the  Sahara  and  the  Sudan  affords  an  instance  of  this  (Figs. 
255  and  256). 


Fig.  254. 

Showing  the  heavy  rainfall  on  the  east-facing  coast  of 
Australia  where  the  trade  winds  blow.  Notice  also 
the  arid  interior  and  west  coast.  What  is  the  con- 
dition in  the  belt  of  calms  ?  What  resemblance  do 
you  see  to  Figure  252  ? 


Fig.  255. 
Winds  and  rainfall  in  South  America  and  Africa  from  December  to  February. 


Eastern  United  States  and  Canada.  —  Thus  far  only  the  regular 
wind  and  rain  belts  have  been  considered,  and  no  explanation  has 
been  made  of  the  condition  of  variable  winds  in  our  Eastern  States. 
One  might  expect  that  the  west  winds,  so  dry  after  passing  over 


WINDS    AND    RAIN 


255 


the   highlands  of  western   United  States,  would  continue  onward 
and  cause  our  northeastern  states  to  be  arid  also.     But  we  know, 


Fig.  256. 

Winds  and  rainfall  in  South  America  and  Africa  from  June  to  August.  Compare  with 
Figure  255  to  see  how  the  belts  of  heavy  rain  have  migrated  as  the  wind  belts  have 
shifted  with  the  change  of  season. 

in  fact,  that  abundant  rains  fall  in  this  section.  We  know,  also, 
that  there  are  no  very  regular  winds  over  this  vast  area;  on  the 
contrary,  both  winds   and    temperature   are  quite  changeable.     In 


Fig.  257. 
Building  wrecked  by  a  cyclone  (Fig.  258) . 


any  particular  locality  on  one  day  it  may  be  warm  and  pleasant, 
with  a  south  wind ;  the  next  day  a  cool,  dry  wind  blows  from  the 
northwest ;  after  two  or  three  days  this  gives  place  to  a  cloudy  sky 


256 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


and  rain,  brought  on  by  south  or  east  winds ;  and  then  fair,  cool 
weather  sets  in,  with  northwest  winds  again. 

Let  us  inquire  into  the  cause  of  these  changes.  From  time  to 
time  out  in  the  northwest  there  comes  to  be  a  place,  or  an  area^  of  low 
pressure  (Fig.  259) ;  that  is,  an  area  where  the  air  is  lighter  than  that 


Fig.  258. 
Photograph  of  a  cyclone  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley. 

over  the  surrounding  region.  The  air  from  the  surrounding  country, 
where  the  pressure  is  greater,  hurries  toward  the  low-pressure  area 
with  a  whorling  motion,  even  from  hundreds  of  miles  awaj^,  causing 
winds  which  on  the  south  side  blow  from  a  westerly  direction,  on  the 
east  side  from  a  southerly  direction,  and  so  forth  (Fig.  259).    Toward 


Fig.  259. 

A  weather  map  of  the  United  States  on  a  winter's  day.  The  lines  are  lines  of  equal  air 
pressure,  —  the  lower  the  figure,  the  lighter  the  air  (29.5  representing  lighter  air  than 
29.7).    The  pressure  is  determined  by  an  instrument  called  the  barometer. 


mNDS    AND    RAIN 


25T 


the  place  where  the  pressure  is  low,  the  air  is  flowing  in  from  all  sides, 
then  rising.  As  it  rises,  the  vapor  condenses,  forming  clouds  and  rain, 
as  in  the  belt  of  calms.  Such  an  area  of  low  pressure,  with  its  clouds  and 
rain,  is  known  as  a  cyclonic  storm  area;  and  it  is  during  these  storms 
that  most  of  the  rain  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  comes. 

Instead  of  remaining  in  one  place,  the  cyclonic  storms  steadily 
travel  onward,  usually  beginning  in  the  northwest  and  always  pass- 
ing eastward  (Fig.  260).  The  paths  followed  by  the  storm  centers 
generally  pass  over  the  Great  Lakes,  down  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley 
to  the  ocean.     They  move  eastward  because  the  prevailing  westerlies 


Fig.  260. 

Weather  map  for  the  day  following  that  of  Figure  259.    Study  this  carefully,  and  tell  how 

it  differs  from  Figure  259. 


carry  them  along ;  indeed,  these  great,  whirling,  cyclonic  storms  are 
apparently  eddies  in  the  prevailing  westerlies,  similar  to  the  eddies 
in  the  current  of  a  stream. 

The  area  of  country  upon  which  rain  may  be  falling  from  the 
clouds  of  one  of  these  storms  is  sometimes  very  great,  places  fully  a 
thousand  miles  apart  sometimes  receiving  rain  at  the  same  time. 
As  the  storm  moves  eastward,  it  grows  clear  on  the  western  side, 
while  the  cloudy  and  rainy  parts  appear  farther  and  farther  east- 
ward (Figs.  259  and  260). 

The  vapor  is  brought  toward  the  storm  center  from  the  Gulf 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  being  carried  by  the  winds  for  hundreds 
of  miles,  even  into  Canada.     The  fact  that  there  is  no  high  moun- 


258  GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

tain  range  extending  across  southern  United  States  is  of  great 
importance.  If  there  were  such  mountains,  instead  of  the  low 
Appalachians  and  the  open  plains  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
winds  could  not  carry  their  vapor  so  far,  but  would  drop  it  on  the 
coast  side,  leaving  the  interior  a  desert. 

Not  only  are  rains  caused  by  these  storms,  but  hot  spells  and  other 
changes  as  well.  Warm  winds,  blowing  toward  the  low  pressure  areas  from 
the  south,  are  the  cause  of  the  winter  thaws  and  the  summer  hot  spells  in 
the  Eastern  States.  It  is  during  these  hot  spells  that  thunder  storms  come ; 
also  in  some  places,  come  tornadoes,  often  called  "  cyclones"  (Fig.  258),  in 
which  the  winds  blow  so  fiercely  that  houses  are  torn  to  pieces  (Fig.  257). 

After  a  low  pressure  area  has  passed  eastward  and  the  storm  is  over, 
the  wind  generally  blows  from  the  west.  This  causes  cool,  dry  weather  in 
summer,  and  cold  snaps  in  winter.  Then  it  is  said  that  a  cold  wave 
has  come ;  and  this,  sweeping  over  the  East,  and  even  far  into  the  South, 
often  does  great  damage  to  fruit  trees  and  delicate  plants. 

Weather  Maps.  —  Figure  259  shows  a  cyclonic  storm  in  the  northwest, 
the  arrows  indicating  how  the  winds  blow  in  from  all  sides  toward  the 
center  of  low  pressure.  Farther  east  is  a  region  of  high  pressure.  In 
Figure  260,  the  high  and  low  pressure  areas  are  again  represented ;  but, 
since  it  is  a  day  later,  they  have  moved  eastward ;  and  the  following  day 
they  would  be  still  farther  east.  You  see  from  these  maps  how  the 
direction  of  the  wind  for  any  one  locality  has  changed  as  the  low  pressure 
areas  have  passed  over  the  country. 

These  storms  are  so  regular,  and  their  importance  is  so  great,  that  the 
United  States  government  has  established  a  Weather  Bureau  which  employs 
a  large  force  of  men,  stationed  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  to  observe 
the  pressure  of  air,  direction  of  wind,  etc.,  and  to  telegraph  the  facts  to 
Washington.  These  observations,  made  at  the  same  time  at  all  stations, 
furnish  information  which  enables  men  to  foretell  the  weather.  Their 
predictions  are  greatly  aided  by  the  fact  that  all  of  the  storms  and  high 
pressure  areas  will  move  eastward. 

Maps,  similar  to  Figures  259  and  260,  called  weather  maps,  are  also  sent 
out.  By  the  predictions  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  farmers  and  gardeners 
are  warned  against  damaging  frosts,  and  sailors  against  severe  storms. 
Especially  valuable  service  has  been  rendered  by  the  Weather  Bureau 
in  predicting  the  very  fierce  hurricanes  that  arise  in  the  West  Indies  and 
sometimes  do  great  damage  there,  as  well  as  on  our  own  coast.  These 
resemble  the  cyclonic  storms,  but  are  much  more  destructive. 

Cyclonic  Storms  in  Europe.  —  Europe  is  also  largely  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  prevailing  westerlies;  and  cyclonic  storms  often  cross 
the  ocean  and  reach  far  into  Europe  (Fig.  261).  There,  as  here,  the 
extent  of  the  country  upon  which  rain  may  be  falling  from  the  clouds 
of  one  of  these  storms  is  sometimes  very  great.     The  weather  like- 


WINDS   AND    RAIN 


259 


wise  is  made  changeable  by  these  storms.  That  is,  in  any  particular 
locality  it  may  be  warm  and  pleasant  one  day,  stormy  the  next, 
then  clear  and  cool,  or  cold.  Similar  cyclonic  storms  develop  in  the 
prevailing  westerly  belt  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  where  they 
bring  changes  of  weather  to  southern  South  America,  Australia, 
and  the  islands  of  the  great  Southern  Ocean. 

Sea  and  Land  Breezes ;  Monsoons.  —  There  is  one  other  great 
source  of  disturbance  of  the  regular  wind  belts  of  the  earth  and 
of  the  rain  belts  that 
are  dependent  upon  them. 
This  is  found  in  the  dif- 
ference in  temperature  be- 
tween land  and  water. 

Land  warms  and  cools 
much  more  quickly  than 
water.  The  land  along  the 
seashore  on  a  hot  summer 
morning  soon  becomes 
warm,  and  the  air  above  it 
is  heated,  as  over  a  stove, 
so  that  it  expands  and 
grows  light;  but  that  over 
the  water  remains  cool, 
like  the  sea  itself.  This 
cooler  air  then  pushes  in 
toward  the  shore;  and 
thus  a  breeze  from  the 
sea,  or  a  sea  breeze,  is 
created.  In  summer, 
such  a  breeze  is  frequently 
felt  at  the  seashore  and  along  the  shores  of  large  lakes,  and  it  helps 
to  make  the  temperature  agreeable.  At  night,  the  land  cools  more 
rapidly  than  the  sea ;  and  then  the  cool  air  from  the  land  moves  out 
toward  the  sea,  forming  a  land  breeze. 

Likewise,  in  summer  the  continents  as  a  whole  become  warmer 
than  the  oceans ;  in  winter  they  become  cooler.  And  in  some  parts 
of  the  world  these  differences  create  winds  on  an  enormous  scale. 
Such  winds  exist  in  Mexico  and  our  Gulf  States ;  but  in  Asia  they 
are  far  more  important. 

The  interior  of  that  continent  is  so  far  from  the  ocean,  that  there 


Fig.  261. 

A  cyclonic  storm  in  Europe  which  came  from  the  ocean. 
The  heavy  black  line  shows  the  course  followed  by 
its  center.  Notice  how  the  winds  blow  toward  the 
center. 


260 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  262. 

The  winds  and  rainfall  during  the  summer  monsoon 
of  India. 


are  naturally  very  great  extremes  of  temperature.     During  the  win- 
ter, the  heavy  air  over  the  cold  land  settles  down  as  drying  air,  and 

^ presses    outward    beneath 

mmF^^^mmmmmm^^mi     the  warmer  air  which  lies 

over  the  ocean.  This  pro- 
duces dry  land  winds.  In 
summer,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  air  over  the  cool  water 
crowds  in,  raises  the  hot 
air  of  the  continent,  and 
produces  ocean  winds  and 
rain.  This  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  southern  part 
of  Asia.  Heated  by  the 
nearly  vertical  rays  of  the 
sun  during  the  northern 
summer,  the  land  there  be- 
comes warmer  than  the 
ocean.  Toward  this  heated  area  the  cooler  air  from  the  Indian 
Ocean  crowds  in,  causing  ocean  winds. 

This  makes  the  summer  winds  opposite  in  direction  to  those  of 
winter,  wben  the  air  from  the  cold  lands  of  interior  Asia  is  flowing 
out  toward   the   warmer  _ 

Indian  Ocean  (Fig.  263). 
Winds  of  this  kind,  which 
blow  in  opposite  directions 
in  different  seasons,  are 
better  developed  in  India 
than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  earth,  and  it  was  there 
that  they  received  the 
name,  monsoon  winds.  The 
term  monsoon  is  now  ap- 
plied to  inward-flowing 
summer  winds  and  out- 
ward-flowing winter  winds 
of  any  large  mass  of  land. 
When  the  summer  mon- 
soons blow,  the  rainy  season  comes  in  India  (Fig.  262).  The  rainfall 
if  especially  lieavy  where  the  moisture-laden  air  ascends  the  steep 


Fig.  263. 

Map  of  the  winter  monsoon  winds  and  rainfall  of 
India.  Compare  with  Figure  262,  and  notice  espe- 
cially how  very  light  the  rainfall  is  in  one  season 
and  how  heavy  it  is  in  the  opposite  season. 


WINDS    AND    RAIN  261 

slope  of  the  Himalayas.  In  one  part  of  this  district,  opposite  the 
head  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  there  is  three  times  as  much  rain  in 
July  alone  as  falls  in  well-watered  portions  of  the  United  States 
during  the  entire  year.  The  winter  monsoon,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
so  dry  that  vegetation  withers  and  the  soil  becomes  parched  and 
cracked,  as  in  a  desert  (Fig.  263).  ^ 

While  the  north  and  south  temperate  zones  are  both  called  temperate, 
and  have  many  features  in  common,  they  are  quite  unlike  in  their  winds. 
In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  broad  continents  become  very  hot  in 
summer  and  cold  in  winter.  Since  the  temperature  of  the  oceans  remains 
more  uniform,  the  regular  winds  are  greatly  interfered  with,  as  by  the 
monsoons.  In  the  south  temperate  zone,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  little 
land  and  a  vast  expanse  of  ocean.  The  temperature  of  the  water  changes 
but  little,  and  the  narrow  lands  have  their  temperature  largely  determined 
by  winds  from  the  oceans.  In  the  south  temperate  zone,  therefore,  there 
is  little  chance  for  monsoons. 

Keview  Questions  :  (1)  Tell  about  the  directions  of  the  regular  winds  of 
North  America.     (2)    Describe  the  circulation  of  air  in  a  room  heated  by  a  stove. 

(3)  Compare  this  circulation  of  air  with  that  in  the  regular  winds  of  the  earth. 

(4)  What  effect  has  rotation  on  the  direction  of  these  winds?  (5)  What  are  the 
names  of  the  regular  winds  of  North  America,  and  over  what  sections  of  the 
continent  do  they  blow  ?  (6)  Locate  and  describe  the  wind  belts  of  the  earth. 
(7)  What  proofs  have  we  that  these  are  permanent  winds  ?  (8)  Tell  about  the 
movement  of  air  in  the  belt  of  calms.  (9)  In  the  horse  latitudes.  (10)  What  is 
the  effect  of  the  earth's  revolution  on  the  location  of  all  of  these  belts?  (11)  Tell 
about  the  causes  of  rain.  (12)  Show  how  the  trade  winds  and  westerlies  affect 
the  rainfall  of  North  America.  (13)  What  about  the  rainfall  in  northern  South 
America  and  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands?  (14)  How  do  you  account  for  the  desert 
of  Sahara?  (15)  Tell  about  the  rainfall  in  Europe.  (16).  In  South  America,  just 
south  of  the  equator,  and  in  Australia.  (17)  In  the  belt  of  calms.  (18)  Show  how 
the  migration  of  the  wind  belts  affects  rainfall,  and  give  an  example.  (19)  Tell 
about  the  winds  and  rain  in  Eastern  United  States  and  Canada.  (20)  About 
weather  maps,  and  the  value  of  the  Weather  Bureau.  (21)  What  about  the 
cyclonic  storms  in  Europe  ?  (22)  Give  the  cause  of  sea  and  land  breezes.  (23)  Of 
monsoons.  Give  example.  (24)  Why  do  monsoons  interfere  with  the  regular 
winds  much  less  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern  hemisphere  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Estimate  the  number  of  barrels  of  water  that  falls  on 
an  acre  of  ground,  or  upon  a  city  block,  in  one  year,  where  the  rainfall  is  forty 
inches.  (2)  How  is  a  movement  of  air  secured  in  your  schoolroom  in  order  to 
ventilate  it?  (3)  Make  a  drawing  to  show  the  direction  of  the  regular  winds 
of  the  world.  (4)  Watch  the  higher  clouds  to  see  in  what  direction  they  are 
moving.  (5)  Read  once  more  the  section  on  "  Air  "  in  the  Primary  Book,  page  71. 
(6)  Write  an  account  of  the  change  in  the  weather  for  five  days  in  succession  :  — 
the  wind  direction  and  force;  the  clouds;  rain;  temperature;  and,  if  possible,  the 
air  pressure.  (7)  Read  the  chapter  on  cyclonic  storms  in  Tarr*s  First  Book  of 
Physical  Geography,  pp.  102-125. 

For  RErsRENCXs,  tee  Teacher*s  Book, 


m.     OCEAN  MOVEMENTS  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
*    TEMPERATURE 

Like  the  air,  the  ocean  water  is  in  motion,  its  three  principal 
movements  being  wind  waves,  tides,  and  ocean  currents. 

Wind  Waves 

Waves  are  formed  by  winds  which  blow  over  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  ruffle  it,  sometimes,  during  storms,  causing  it  to  rise  and  fall  from 
twenty  to  forty  feet. 

In  the  open  ocean  waves  are  rarely  very  dangerous  to  large  vessels ; 
but  upon  the  seashore  they  do  great  damage  to  vessels  and  even  to  the 
coast  itself,  wearing  away  the  rocks  and  dragging  the  fragments  out  to 
sea.     The  constant  beating  of  the  waves  is  slowly  eating  the  coast  away. 

Tides 

What  the  Tides  are.  —  People  living  upon  the  seacoast  are  famil- 
iar with  the  fact  that  the  ocean  water  rises  for  about  six  hours  and 
then  slowly  falls.  This  rising  and  falling  of  the  water  twice  each 
day  forms  what  is  known  as  the  tide.  For  a  long  time  men  were 
puzzled  to  explain  this:  it  was  called  the  breathing  of  the  earth,  and 
by  certain  uncivilized  races  it  is  to  this  day  thought  to  be  caused  by 
some  great  animal. 

As  a  result  of  careful  study,  we  have  learned  that  the  tides  are 
caused  by  the  moon  and  the  sun,  especially  the  former.  Each  of 
these  bodies  is  pulling  upon  the  earth,  by  the  attraction  of  gravi- 
tation, as  a  horseshoe  magnet  pulls  upon  a  piece  of  iron.  When  the 
sun  and  moon  pull  upon  the  earth,  the  ocean,  being  a  liquid  that  can 
be  moved,  is  drawn  slightly  out  of  shape.  This  causes  two  great 
swells,  or  waves,  many  hundreds  of  miles  broad,  to  pass  around  the 
earth,  following  the  moon.  When  these  swells  reach  the  shores, 
they  cause  the  rise  of  the  water  known  as  the  tide. 

Height  of  the  Tidal  Wave.  —  The  tidal  wave  is  only  two  or  three 
feet  high  upon  headlands  which  project  into  the  open  ocean;  but  it 
rises  a  great  deal  higher  in  many  bays.  There  the  wave  is  raised 
higher  because  the  space   that  it  occupies  becomes  narrower  near 

102 


OCEAN   MOVEMENTS  268 

the  head  of  the  bay.     In  some  such  places,  as  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
the  tide  reaches  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet. 

The  height  of  the  tide  also  varies  from  day  to  day,  for  the  moon  and 
sun,  which  combine  to  form  it,  do  not  always  work  together.  At  new  moon 
and  full  moon,  when  the  earth,  moon,  and  sun  are  nearly  in  a  straight  line, 
the  moon  and  sun  pull  together  and  make  the  tidal  wave  higher  than  at 
the  quarter.  The  high  range  of  tides  at  full  and  new  moon  are  called 
spring  tides,  those  at  the  quarters,  neap  tides. 

Ocean  Currents 

Cause  of  Ocean  Currents.  —  The  winds  which  blow  over  the 
ocean,  forming  waves,  also  drive  the  water  before  them.  You  may 
do  this  in  a  small  way  by  blowing  on  the  surface  of  a  pail  of  water. 
This  starts  a  current,  or  drift,  of  surface  water  in  the  direction  that 
the  air  is  moving.  Where  the  winds  are  steady,  as  in  the  trade 
wind  belts,  or  moderately  steady,  as  in  the  prevailing  westerlies, 
there  is  a  permanent  drift  of  water,  pushed  along  by  the  prevailing 
winds.  These  form  the  great  system  of  ocean  currents  (Fig.  267) 
which  have  such  an  important  influence  on  the  earth. 

In  our  study  of  North  America  it  was  several  times  necessary  to 
refer  to  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  Labrador  Current.  We  will  now 
study  the  currents  on  each  side  of  our  continent  more  fully. 

The  North  Atlantic  Eddy.  —  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Atlantic, 
where  the  trade  winds  blow,  the  surface  water  drifts  slowly  in  the 
direction  of  the  trade  winds  ;  that  is,  toward  the  belt  of  calms 
(Fig.  249).  It  then  drifts  westward,  as  a  great  equatorial  drift, 
until  the  easternmost  extremity  of  South  America  interferes  with  its 
course.  There  the  drift  of  water  is  divided,  a  part  being  turned 
southward,  while  the  greater  portion  proceeds  northwestward. 

The  part  that  flows  northward  is  deflected  toward  the  right 
by  the  effect  of  rotation,  as  the  winds  are  (p.  246) ;  and  the  part 
that  flows  into  the  South  Atlantic  is  turned  to  the  left,  also  by  the 
effect  of  rotation.  Therefore  the  northern  drift,  instead  of  coming 
near  to  the  mainland  of  North  America,  keeps  turning  to  the  right, 
crossing  the  Atlantic  to  Europe.  It  then  passes  southward,  and 
finally  returns  to  the  trade  wind  belt  where  it  started,  having  made 
a  complete  circuit.     (Figs.  264  and  267.) 

Coming  from  the  equatorial  region,  this  water  is  warm,  and  in  it  live 
countless  millions  of  animals  and  floating  plants.  Among  the  latter,  one 
of  the  most  abundant  is  a  seaweed,  called  jSargassurrif  which  is  thrown  into 


264 


QENEEAL    OEOOBAPHY 


the  middle  of  this  great  eddy.  There  it  has  collected  until  it  now  forms 
a  "  grassy  "  or  "  Sargasso  '^  sea,  hundreds  of  square  miles  in  extent.  Since 
the  "  Sargasso "  Sea  lies  directly  between  Spain  and  the  West  Indies, 
Columbus  was  obliged  to  cross  it  on  his  first  voyage  of  discovery  ;  and  his 
sailors,  upon  entering  it,  were  much  alarmed  lest  they  might  run  aground, 
or  become  so  entangled  in  the  weed  that  they  could  not  escape. 

The  Gulf  Stream.  —  A  portion  of  the  drift  of  water  which  moves 
northward  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America  enters  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  then  passes  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  is  a 
broad,  deep,  gently-flowing  current ;  and  it  is  so  nearly  surrounded 


Fig.  2('A. 

A  diagram  to  show  the  currents  of  the  North  Atlantic.  In  order  to  illustrate  the  currents 
clearly  it  has  seemed  necessary  to  make  them  as  if  they  were  sharply  bounded,  like  a 
river  in  its  channel.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  boundaries  of  these  great  currents 
and  drifts  are  so  indefinite  that,  in  crossing  them,  one  would  not  be  able  to  detect  the 
boundaries  even  by  using  the  greatest  care. 


by  the  warm  tropical  lands  that  it  grows  even  warmer  than  when 
it  entered  the  Caribbean.  After  swirling  round  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
it  escapes  between  Cuba  and  Florida,  after  which  it  is  known  as  the 
Grulf  Stream  (Fig.  264),  because  it  comes  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Being  forced  to  pass  out  through  so  narrow  an  opening,  its  rate  of 
movement  is  much  increased  —  even  to  four  or  five  miles  per  hour  — 
as  water  in  a  hose  is  made  to  increase  its  speed  by  passing  through 


OCEAN    MOVEMENTS 


265 


the    nozzle.      Measure    the    distance   from    Key  West  to  Havana 
(Fig.  163). 

Being  turned  to  the  right  by  the  effect  of  the  earth's  rotation, 
the  Gulf  Stream  soon  leaves  the  American  coast  and  flows  north- 
eastward toward  northern  Europe.  It  broadens  rapidly  and  joins 
forces  with  the  western  part  of  the  great  Atlantic  eddy.    In  crossing 

the  Atlantic,  the  drift  is  pushed  along 
by  the  prevailing  westerlies,  so  that  it 
reaches  the  shores  of  northern 
Europe,  and  even  enters  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  Some  idea  of 
its  volume  may  be  gained  from 
the  fact  that  it  carries  many 
times  as  much  water  as  all 
the  rivers  of  the  world. 
The  Labrador  Cur- 
rent. —  After  being 
cooled,  some  of  this 
water  settles  to  the 
bottom  and  finds  its 
way  back  to  the  tor- 
rid zone  in  the  slow 
drift  of  cold  water 
which  is  forever 
moving  along  the 
ocean  bottom  from 
the  frigid  zone  to- 
ward the  equator.  But  much  of  it  returns  at  the  surface,  for  there  is 
a  cold  surface  current,  called  the  Labrador  current^  passing  south- 
ward along  our  northeastern  coast  (Figs.  264,  265,  and  267). 

The  Labrador  current  flows  down  from  among  the  islands  of 
North  America,  past  the  coast  of  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  New  England  as  far  as  Cape  Cod.  Like  all  ocean  cur- 
rents in  the  northern  hemisphere,  it  is  turned  toward  the  right,  that 
is,  since  it  flows  southward,  toward  the  west.  This  causes  it  to 
follow  our  coast  very  closely,  keeping  nearer  our  shore  than  the 
Gulf  Stream  does. 


Fig.  265. 

An  Arctic  whaling  steamer  imprisoned,  off  the  coast  of  Baffin 
Land,  in  the  floe  ice  which  is  being  carried  southward  in 
the  Labrador  current. 


Since  there  are  two  currents  near  together,  a  cold  one  from  the  north, 
and  a  warm  one  from  the  south,  a  vessel  sailing  from  Boston  to  England 
must  cross  both.     During  winter  storms  a  ship  often  becomes  covered 


266  GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

with  snow  and  ice  while  in  the  cold  Labrador  ourrent,  but  losQS  this  coat- 
ing soon  after  entering  the  Gulf  Stream- 
Where  the  cold  and  warm  currents  come  near  together,  a  densd  fog 
is  produced.  You  can  doubtless  explain  why  that  is  so  (see  Primary  Book, 
p.  77).  Sailors  who  cross  the  Atlantic  have  learned  to  expect  heavy  fogs 
as  they  pass  near  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland,  which  is 
one  of  the  foggiest  regions  in  the  world. 

The  Currents  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  —  In  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
as  in  the  Atlantic  (Fig.  267),  the  water  drifts  westward  in  the  belt 
of  calms ;  then  a  broad,  warm  current  swings  to  the  right  past 
Japan,  crossing  the  ocean  toward  Alaska,  as  the  Gulf  Stream  crosses 
the  Atlantic  toward  Europe.  This  is  called  the  Japanese  current. 
Continuing  to  turn  to  the  right,  this  great  ocean  drift  passes  south- 
ward to  complete  the  vast  eddy. 

A  small  branch  of  the  current  turns  northward  along  the  Alaskan 
coast.  There  is  also  a  cold  current  between  the  Japanese  current  and  the 
coast  of  Asia,  corresponding  to  the  Labrador  current  in  the  Atlantic. 

We  see  from  what  has  been  said,  that,  although  the  Gulf  Stream 
flows  past  the  Southern  States,  the  northeastern  coasts  of  North 
America  and  of  Asia  are  bathed  by  ocean  currents  from  the  cold  north. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  northwestern  coasts  of  Europe  and  North 
America  are  approached  by  warm  drifts  of  water  from  the  south. 

Eddies  of  the  Southern  Oceans.  —  In  the  South  Pacific,  South 
Atlantic,  and  Indian  oceans,  the  same  causes  have  produced  eddies 
similar  to  that  of  the  North  Pacific  ;  but  here  the  earth's  rotation 
deflects  the  winds  to  the  left,  as  we  know,  and  the  waters  are  moved 
in  the  same  direction.  Some  of  the  water  of  these  eddies  joins 
the  broad  West  Wind  Drift  of  the  distant  southern  ocean  ;  but 
much  of  it  turns  northward  until  it  once  more  reaches  the  trade 
wind  belt,  thus  completing  the  eddies  (Fig.  267). 

Effects  of  Ocean  Currents  in  North  America :  Review.  —  The  cold 
Labrador  current  greatly  affects  the  temperature  upon  the  land,  for 
winds  blowing  over  it  carry  the  chill  far  inland.  This  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  the  east  winds  of  New  England  are  so  cool,  and  why 
the  New  England  coast  is  such  an  agreeable  summer  resort. 

Since  the  Labrador  current  flows  as  far  south  as  Cape  Cod,  the  water 
north  of  this  promontory  must  be  cooler  than  that  south  of  it.  As  tlie 
cold  current  leaves  the  Arctic  region,  it  bears  with  it  much  sea  ice  which 
has  been  frozen  during  the  preceding  winters  (Fig.  265),  and  also  gigantic 
icebergs  which  have  broken  off  from  the  Greenland  glacier.     It  is  upon 


OCEAN    MOVEMENTS  •  26T 

this  drifting  ice  that  the  polar  bear  spends  much  of  his  time  hunting  for 
seals,  which  live  in  great  numbers  in  the  ice-covered  waters  (Fig.  266). 

The  icebergs  may  be  carried  southward  one  or  two  thousand  miles 
before  the  air  and  water  melt  them  away  (see  limit  of  icebergs  on  Fig. 
267).  Indeed,  some  icebergs  float  even  as  far  south  as  the  paths  followed 
by  vessels  which  cross  the  Atlantic.  Since  many  bergs  are  larger  than 
the  greatest  building  in  the  world,  collision  with  one  means  shipwreck ; 
therefore  sailors  need  to  use  great  caution,  especially  when  the  ship  is  in 
the  fog. 

The  cyclonic  winds  from  the  Gulf  Stream  greatly  temper  the 
climate  of  eastern  United  States,  while  at  the  same  time  they  bring 
to  us  much  vapor  gathered  from  over  these  warm  waters. 

The  warm  currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  render  the  southern  part 
of  Alaska   far  warmer  than  southern    Labrador,  which  is  farther 


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Fig.  266. 
Polar  bear  and  seal  on  the  floe  ice  of  the  Labrador  current. 

south ;  and  the  prevailing  westerlies  bring  an  abundance  of  vapor 
to  the  Pacific  coast  all  the  way  from  California  to  Alaska.  Where 
these  winds  blow,  the  winters  are  mild  and  the  rain  heavy  ;  but  the 
summers  are  cool  and  pleasant  because  the  ocean  water,  though 
warm,  does  not  become  greatly  heated.  Notice  on  a  globe  that  the 
state  of  Washington,  with  its  pleasant  climate,  is  about  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  equator  as  the  bleak  island  of  Newfoundland,  the 
shores  of  which  are  bathed  by  the  cold  Labrador  current. 


268  GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Effects  on  Other  Regions.  —  The  Gulf  Stream  drift  is  of  special 
benefit  to  the  Old  World.  It  has  been  estimated  that  its  waters 
carry  one  half  as  much  heat  into  the  Arctic  as  reaches  it  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  When  Nansen  started  on  his  famous  journey 
toward  the  north  pole,  he  entered  the  Arctic  Ocean  with  this  cur- 
rent. Thus,  since  its  warm  water  keeps  that  part  of  the  Arctic  free 
from  ice  in  summer,  he  was  able  to  proceed  much  farther  than  he 
otherwise  could  have  gone.  Owing  to  this  warmth,  Russia  is  able 
to  have  a  harbor  on  the  very  shores  of  the  Arctic.  Name  it. 
Westerly  winds,  warmed  in  passing  over  this  drift,  have  made 
possible  the  great  civilized  nations  of  northern  Europe,  the  father- 
land of  so  many  Americans. 

Notice  on  a  map  how  many  large  cities  are  in  that  part  of  north- 
ern Europe  which  is  the  same  distance  from  the  equator  as  desolate 
Labrador.  What  a  striking  contrast  these  nations  present  to  the 
scattered  savages  of  the  latter  dreary  country,  whose  winds  come 
either  from  the  land  or  over  cold  ocean  water. 

When  our  first  settlers  came  from  England  they  expected  to  find 
in  the  New  World  a  climate  like  their  own  in  the  same  latitude. 
They  were  unprepared  for  the  severe  winters  which  they  actually 
found,  and  thus  the  first  settlements  on  the  New  England  and 
Canadian  coasts  were  failures. 

Besides  thus  influencing  so  much  of  the  earth,  the  Gulf  Stream,  like 
other  warm  currents,  has  helped  to  form  a  great  number  of  islands. 
Where  warm  currents  flow,  the  water  is  often  warm  enough  for  corals  to 
live ;  and,  since  the  moving  water  brings  to  them  an  abundance  of  tiny 
animals  for  food,  colonies  of  corals  flourish,  and  their  skeletons  gradually 
form  reefs.  In  this  way  the  southern  half  of  Florida,  the  Bahamas,  the 
Bermudas,  and  many  of  the  islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  were  built. 

The  cold  current  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Asia  affects  that  region 
much  as  the  Labrador  current  affects  northeastern  North  America. 
Its  winds  chill  the  Siberian  coast,  and  cause  the  harbors,  like  that  of 
Vladivostok,  to  be  icebound  in  winter.  This  explains  why  Russia 
desired  to  hold  the  Chinese  harbor  at  Port  Arthur,  south  of  Korea, 
as  a  terminus  of  the  great  Siberian  railway, — that  her  commerce 
and  warships  might  not  be  shut  up  in  winter. 

Distribution  of  Temperature 

In  general,  it  is  true  that  the  farther  north  we  travel  from  the 
equator,  the  colder  it  grows ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  always  the 


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270 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    TEMPEBATUBE  271 

case.  If  the  earth  were  made  of  one  solid,  level  substance,  like 
glass,  the  temperature  would  gradually  decrease  from  the  equator  to 
the  poles.  Then  all  points  the  same  distance  from  the  equator,  as 
all  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  or  all  on  the  Arctic  Circle,  for  instance, 
would  have  the  same  temperature. 

But  we  have  seen  that  there  are  several  causes  which  interfere 
with  this  regular  decrease  in  temperature  toward  the  poles.  For  exam- 
ple, (1)  high  mountains  have  a  cold  climate,  even  though  in  the 
torrid  zone  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  plateaus  may  be  colder  than 
lowlands  far  north  of  them. 

Besides  that,  (2)  land  warms  and  cools  much  more  rapidly  than 
water  (p.  259),  so  that  land  becomes  hotter  in  summer  and  colder  in 
winter  than  the  ocean.  Thus,  in  northern  Minnesota,  far  from  the 
coast,  the  average  temperature  in  January  is  below  zero,  while  in 
July  it  is  about  Q5°  (Figs.  270  and  271).  In  New  York  City,  on  the 
coast,  the  average  in  January  is  about  25°,  and  in  July  not  quite 
75°.  On  the  west  coast,  in  the  state  of  Washington,  where  the  winds 
are  blowing  from  the  ocean,  the  average  temperature  for  January  is 
40°,  and  for  July  60°. 

At  Key  West,  Florida,  which  is  surrounded  by  water,  the  aver- 
age temperature  in  January  is  about  70°,  and  in  July  about  85°. 
Where  the  temperature  changes  so  little,  the  climate  is  said  to  be 
equable. 

The  winds  (3)  greatly  influence  the  temperature.  Where  they  bio w 
from  the  ocean,  they  cause  an  equable  climate,  as  along  the  coast  of 
California  ;  but  where  they  blow  from  the  land,  they  are  cool  or 
cold  in  winter  and  warm  in  summer.  This  is  true  of«the  Eastern 
States,  where  most  of  the  winds  blow  from  the  land,  though  some  of 
the  damp  winds  come  from  the  ocean. 

Another  cause  (4)  for  different  temperatures  at  places  equally 
distant  from  the  equator  is  found  in  the  ocean  currents.  We  have 
just  seen  that  the  Gulf  Stream  drift  warms  the  air,  while  the  Lab- 
rador current  cools  it,  and  thus  by  winds  from  these  waters  the  tern-, 
perature  is  affected  over  a  very  wide  area. 

If,  therefore,  we  were  to  draw  a  line  across  the  continent,  connect- 
ing several  points  that  have  the  same  average  temperature  during 
any  one  month,  or  during  the  entire  year,  it  would  need  to  be  a  very 
crooked  one,  with  some  parts  reaching  much  farther  north  than 
others.  Such  lines  tell  so  much  about  temperature  in  so  little  space 
that  it  is  the  custom  to  make  maps  to  show  them,  as  in   Figures  270 


272  GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

and  271.  Since  the  lines  connect  the  places  having  the  same  tem- 
perature, they  are  called  isothermal  lines  or  isotherms.  (The  first 
part  of  the  word  means  equals  and  the  latter  part  heat.^  A  map  or 
chart  showing  the  isotherms  is  called  an  isothermal  chart  (Figs.  270 
and  271).  Trace  several  of  the  isotherms  across  the  United  States, 
and  explain  why  they  bend  as  they  do. 

Note  that  on  the  western  coast  the  isotherms  extend  northward 
and  southward  almost  parallel  to  the  coast,  since  the  prevailing 
westerlies  bring  to  the  land  the  nearly  uniform  temperature  of  the 
Pacific.  There  is  only  about  20°  difference  between  winter  and  sum- 
mer temperatures  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America.  But  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  the  difference  between  summer 
and  winter  is  much  more  marked,  because,  while  some  of  the  winds 
are  from  the  ocean,  still  more  are  from  the  land,  which  is  cold  in 
winter  and  warm  in  summer. 

Figures  268  and  269  show  similar  isotherms  for  the  world.  Ob- 
serve how  these  bend  toward  the  equator  where  they  cross  mountain 
chains.  Comparing  these  two  figures,  you  will  notice  how  the  win- 
ter isotherms  of  the  north  temperate  zone  bend  toward  the  equator 
over  the  continents,  for  reasons  given  in  (2)  above.  During  the 
summer,  on  the  contrary,  the  isotherms  curve  poleward.  On  what 
continent  are  these  bends  most  striking  ?  Why  ?  Explain  the 
effect  of  the  Gulf  Stream  drift  as  shown  in  Figure  269. 

The  reason  is  evident  why  the  isotherms  of  the  North  Atlantic 
are  close  together  as  they  leave  America,  but  spread  apart  like  a  fan 
toward  the  Old  World.  On  the  American  side  the  currents 
approach  ea«h  other,  one  from  the  north  bearing  Arctic  cold,  the 
other  from  the  warm  south.  This  causes  great  temperature  con- 
trasts between  our  northern  and  southern  coasts.  On  the  European 
side  one  part  of  the  ocean  drift  passes  northward,  raising  the  tem- 
perature and  bending  the  isotherms  far  northward.  The  remainder 
turns  southward  and,  being  somewhat  cooler  than  the  region  into 
which  it  enters,  slightly  lowers  the  temperature  and  bends  the 
isotherms  southward.     Thus  the  isotherms  are  spread  apart. 

Review  Questions:  Waves  and  Tides. —  (1)  Of  what  importance  are  the 
waves?     (2)    How  often  does  the  tide  rise  and  fall?     (3)    What  causes  it? 

Ocean  Currents.  —  (4)  Explain  how  winds  help  to  produce  ocean  currents. 
(5)  Describe  the  drift  of  tropical  waters  in  the  Atlantic.  (6)  Trace  the  drift  which 
passes  outside  of  the  West  Indies  to  the  European  coast.  (7)  Describe  the  Gulf 
Stream.  (8)  Describe  the  Labrador  current.  (9)  Trace  the  currents  in  the  North 
Pacific.     (10)   What  coasts  mentioned  are  bathed  by  warm  currents?    By  cold 


27t 


Fig.  270. 

Isothermal  chart  of  the  United  States  for  January.  Why  is  it  colder  in  the  interior  than  on 
the  east  coast?  Why  so  warm  on  the  west  coast?  Can  you  notice  any  influence  of 
mountains  ? 


Fig.  271. 

Isothermal  chart  of  the  United  States  for  July.  Notice  the  influence  of  the  Rocky  Moim- 
tains.  Of  the  Appalachians.  Why  is  it  cooler  on  the  west  coast  than  on  the  east  coast? 
What  makes  the  isotherms  bend  northward  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  ? 


374 


DISTRIBUTION    OF   TEMPERATURE 


275 


currents?  (11)  Tell  about  the  eddies  in  the  southern  oceans.  (12)  In  what 
ways  is  the  Labrador  current  of  importance?  (13)  What  influence  has  it  in  North 
America?  (14)  What  is  the  influence  of  the  Japanese  current  ?  (15)  Tell  about 
the  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  on  the  Arctic  Ocean.  (16)  On  Europe.  (17)  On 
the  building  of  coral  islands.  (18)  What  is  the  effect  of  the  cold  current  flowing 
along  the  northeast  coast  of  Asia? 

Distribution  of  Temperature.  —  (19)  What  about  the  change  in  temperature 
from  equator  to  poles,  if  the  earth  were  a  round  ball  of  glass  ?  (20)  How  is  this 
change  interfered  with?  (21)  What  is  an  isothermal  line?  (22)  An  isothermal 
chart  ?  (23)  Relate  some  facts  about  the  isothermal  lines  for  the  United  States. 
(24)   About  those  for  the  world. 

Suggestions. —  (1)  If  your  home  is  upon  the  seacoast,  find  out  about  the 
high  and  low  tides  for  several  days  in  succession.  (2)  Notice  the  relation  between 
the  height  and  the  time  of  high  tide,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  changes  in  the 
moon,  on  the  other.  (3)  Does  the  government  spend  money  near  your  home  to 
remove  materials  which  the  tidal  currents  have  brought?  (4)  What  course  might 
a  vessel  take  in  order  to  be  carried  from  Europe  to  America  and  back  again  by 
ocean  currents  ?  (5)  What  precautions  do  vessels  take  to  avoid  running  into  one 
another  in  dense  fogs?  (6)  How  do  they  try  to  avoid  collisions  with  icebergs? 
(7)  Does  the  presence  of  a  warm  or  cold  current  near  a  country  necessarily 
greatly  affect  the  climate  of  that  country  ?  (8)  Locate  the  cold  ocean  currents 
of  the  world;  the  warm  currents.  (9)  Estimate  the  length  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  great  eddy  in  the  North  Pacific. 


Fig.  272. 
Sitka  and  Three  Sister  Mts.,  Alaska.    Notice  the  Greek  Church  in  center  of  pictarOa 


IV.     PEOPLES 


Divisions  of  Mankind. — Man,  like  plants  and  animals,  varies  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  He  is  influenced  by  his  surroundings, 
as  they  are,  and  in  the  course  of  time  has  developed  differently  in 
the  various  3ands  of  the  earth.  Concerning  the  origin  of  the  human 
race,  and  its  divisions,  people  hold  different  views;  but  mankind  in 
general  may  be  divided  into  four  great  groups. 

Ethiopians.  —  All  together  there  are  about  one  and  one  half  billion 
human  beings  upon  the  earth,  or  twenty  times  the  number  in  the 
United  States.  Of  these  the  lowest  are  the  negroes,  or  Ethiopiayis, 
often  called  the  black  race  (Fig.  275),  who  number  about  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  million.  There  are  many  subdivisions  of  this 
group,  but  they  are  all  characterized  by  a  deep  brown  or  black  skin, 
short,  black,  woolly  hair,  broad,  flat  noses,  and  prominent  cheek  bones. 

The  home  of  the  Ethiopians  is  Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara  desert, 
though  many  have  been  transported  to  other  lands  as  slaves,  and 
have  there  mingled  more  or  less  with  the  other  races.  In  their 
original  home  they  are  savages,  or  barbarians  of  low  type. 


Fia.  273. 
Native  Kanaka  boys  with  surf  boards  and  canoe,  Hawaiian  Islands, 
girls  are  expert  swimmers. 

S7e 


Kanaka  boys  and 


PEOPLES 


217 


The  native  Australians,  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea,  the  Negritos 
of  the  Philippines,  and  the  blacks  on  some  other  islands  in  that  part  of 
the  world  resemble  the  negroes  most  closely,  though  differing  from  them 
in  some  important  respects.  They  are  shorter,  for  example;  their  hair 
is  less  woolly,  their  noses  straighter,  and  their  lips  less  thick. 

American  Indians.  —  A  second  great  division  of  the  human  race 
is  that  of  the  American  Indians,  often  called  the  red  race  (pp.  30- 
32)  (Fig.  275).  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  four  groups,  number- 
ing about  twenty-two  millions.  These  people,  who  in  some  respects 
resemble  the  Mongolians, 
were  in  possession  of  both 
North  and  South  America 
when  Columbus  discovered 
America.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  copper-col- 
ored skin,  prominent  cheek 
bones,  black  eyes,  and  long, 
coarse,  black  hair  (Figs. 
286  and  298). 

Mongolians.  —  The  third 
division,  the  Mongolian  or 
yellow  race,  numbering  about 
five  hundred  and  forty  mil- 
lions, are  typically  Asiatic 
people,  the  greater  numbrr 
being  found  in  Asia  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific. 

The  Mongolians,  typi- 
cally represented  by  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese 
(Figs.  274  and  275),  have 
yellowish,  or  in  some  cases 
even  a  white  skin,  prominent  cheek  bones,  small,  oblique  eyes,  a  small 
nose,  and  long,  coarse,  black  hair.  In  places,  as  on  the  more  remote 
islands,  the  Mongolians  are  uncivilized ;  but  the  great  majority  may 
be  classed  as  civilized  people,  although  their  standard  of  civilization 
differs  from  that  of  the  white  race. 

Caucasians.  —  By  far  the  largest  and  most  civilized  of  the  four 
divisions  of  mankind  is  the  white  or  Caucasian  race,  which  numbers 
about  seven  hundred  and  seventy  millions.     Their  original  home  is 


Fig.  274. 
Japanese  women. 


278  GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

not  known.  With  the  dawn  of  history  the  white  peoples  of  Europe 
were  mostly  barbarians ;  but  civilization  had  begun  to  develop  in 
southern  and  western  Asia  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

While  for  various  reasons  the  Caucasians  differ  greatly  in  charac- 
teristics, two  main  branches  are  recognized :  (1)  the  fair  type  (Fig. 
275),  with  florid  complexion,  light  brown,  flaxen,  or  red  hair,  blue  or 
gray  eyes,  and  height  above  the  average ;  (2)  the  dark  type  (Fig. 
276),  with  fair  skin,  dark  brown  and  black  hair,  often  wavy  or  curly, 
and  black  eyes.  In  temperament  both  are  active,  enterprising,  and 
imaginative,  though  the  fair  type  is  more  stolid,  the  dark  type  more 
emotional. 

Distribution  of  Races.  —  For  centuries  these  four  great  divisions 
of  the  human  race  have  been  changing  within  themselves  until  there 
are  now  many  subdivisions  of  each  group.  By  war  and  invasion 
they  have  encroached  upon  one  another,  and  have  intermixed  to 
some  extent.  But  the  leaders  are  the  whites,  who,  having  learned 
the  use  of  ships  in  exploring  distant  lands,  have  spread  with  a 
rapidity  never  seen  before.  Also,  being  more  advanced  than  the 
others,  the  white  races  have  readily  conquered  the  weaker  people 
and  taken  their  lands  from  them.  They  now  dominate  the  world, 
the  only  division  that  has  held  out  against  them  being  the  Mongo- 
lians, whose  very  numbers  have  in  large  measure  served  to  protect 
them. 

Distribution  of  Religion.  ■ —  Every  race  has  some  form  of  religion. 
Among  savages  it  is  little  more  than  superstition.  They  are  sur- 
rounded by  nature,  which  they  do  not  understand.  They  seek  a 
cause,  and,  seeing  none,  are  led  to  believe  in  spirits  which  they  try  to 
comprehend.  Some  they  suppose  to  be  evil,  others  good.  Believing 
that  these  spirits  have  great  influence  over  their  lives,  they  try  to 
win  favor  with  them  by  offering  sacrifices  and  worshiping  them. 

Such  religion,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  takes  many  forms.  Some  races, 
as  the  negroes,  believe  in  witchcraft ;  and  among  them  the  witch  doctor  is 
sometimes  mor«  powerful  than  the  ruler  himself.  To  ward  off  evil  influ- 
ences charms  are  worn,  gross  rites  are  observed,  and  images  or  objects, 
called  fetishes  (Fig.  278),  are  worshiped  because  they  are  believed  to 
possess  magic  power.  Among  objects  worshiped  are  fire,  the  sun,  the 
earthquake,  and  many  animals.  So  far  as  the  idea  of  God  is  concerned, 
if  these  people  have  any  conception  of  Him,  it  is  of  the  crudest  kind. 
The  negroes,  the  Indians,  the  Eskimos,  and  even  our  own  ancestors  a  few 
thousand  years  ago,  had  little  more  than  this  form  of  religion. 


Fig.  275. 
Races  of  mankind.    Red,  or  Indian,  upper  left ;  black,  or  Ethiopian,  upper  right ;  white,  or 
Caucasian,  middle ;  yellow,  or  Mongolian,  lower  right ;  brown,  or  Malay  (a  branch  of 
the  yellow  race) ,  lower  lef to 

279 


Fig.  27(). 
A  group  of  Indian  Brahmins,  who  belong  to  the  dark  type  of  Caucasians. 


Fig.  277. 

Diagram  to  show  the  distribution  of  religions.  So  small  a  map  is  of  course 
true  only  in  general  —for  example,  it  must  omit  many  of  the  small  sec- 
tions where  Christian  missionaries  have  made  converts. 


280 


PEOPLES 


281 


All  people  with  such  views  as  the  preceding  are  called  heathens 
(Fig.  277),  and  are  often  wrongly  said  to  have  no  religion.  From 
our  point  of  view  they  have  no  true  religion ;  but  they  have  some- 
thing akin  to  it. 

Among  the  semi-civilized  and  civilized  races  there  are  forms  of 
religion  in  which  the  conception  of  God  is  higher,  and  the  idea  of 
future  reward  and  punishment  is  taught.  Of  these 
religions  five  call  for  special  mention. 

Buddhism,  followed  especially  in  eastern  Asia 
(Fig.  277),  was  established  in  India  five  or  six 
hundred  years  before  the  time  of  Christ  as  a  result 
of  the  work  and  teachings  of  Buddha  (Fig.  279). 
But  there  are  many  differences  in  the  religious  beliefs 
and  customs  of  the  Asiatic  people,  and  in  consequence 
there  are  many  sects.  Brahminism  is  one  of  the  most 
common  forms  of  belief,  being  especially  followed 
in  India.  It  would  be  difficult  to  describe  correctly 
the  religions  of  the  Asiatic  people  in  a  few  words ; 
but  idolatry,  or  the  worship  of  idols,  is  prevalent 
among  them.  Ancestor  worship  is  common  in  China; 
and  the  doctrine  of  caste,  in  India,  —  that  is,  the  doc- 
trine of  class  distinction.  Both  of  these  doctrines, 
which  are  a  part  of  their  religion,  are  opposed  to 
progress,  as  we  shall  see. 

The  Jeivish  religion,  still  followed  by  many, 
upholds  the  worship  of  one  righteous  God,  as  taught 
in  the  Old  Testament.  From  this,  two  other  religions 
have  developed,  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity. 
The  prophet  Mohammed  lived  about  six  centuries  after  Christ,  and 
the  Koran  contains  his  teachings.  Mohammedans  deny  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  This  religion  has  been  spread  by  the  sword  with  wonder- 
ful rapidity,  especially  among  the  semi-civilized  people  of  Asia  and 
Africa  (Fig.  277).  Many  of  its  followers  became  fanatics  who,  be- 
lieving that  they  thus  obtained  future  happiness,  willingly  died  if 
they  could  die  killing  a  Christian. 

The  Christian  religion,  the  common  belief  in  America  and  most 
of  Europe,  has  spread  slowly,  but  it  now  numbers  about  440,000,000 
followers.  Its  success,  however,  must  not  be  measured  by  numbers 
alone;  for  Christians  make  up  most  of  the  really  civilized  people  of 
the  world  (Fig.  277).     It  is  no  accident  that  this  is  so,  for  Chria- 


FiG.  278. 

A  fetish  from 
Africa. 


282 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


tianity  has  been  one  of    the  chief   factors  in  making  civilization 

possible. 

Religious  belief  has  had  much  to  do  with  inventions  and  the 
growth  of  industry.  The  Chinese,  for  example,  have  long  opposed 
new  inventions  because  their  ancestor  worship  cultivated  undue 
reverence  for  past  customs;    also  they  have  been  unwilling  to  dig 

into  the  ground,  for  fear  of 
disturbing  the  evil  spirits 
that  are  supposed  to  dwell 
there.  Partly  for  such 
reasons,  our  study  of  geog- 
raphy is  chiefly  concerned 
with  Christian  countries; 
for  there  we  find  the  most 
varied  and  extensive  uses 
of  the  earth  in  the  service 
of  man. 


Review  Questions.  —  (1) 
Tell  about  the  Ethiopians;  their 
characteristics  and  distribution. 
(2)  Do  the  same  for  the  Amer- 
ican Indians.  (3)  Mongolians. 
(4)  Caucasians.  (5)  Give  rea- 
sons for  the  greater  advance  of 
the  Caucasians.  (6)  Tell  about 
the  distribution  of  religion. 
(7)  Give  some  facts  about 
Heathens;  Buddhism  and 
Brahmin  ism;  Jewish  religion  ; 
Mohammedanism;  Christianity. 


Fig.  279. 
A  statue,  or  idol,  of  Buddha  in  Japan. 


Suggestions.  —  (1)  What 
members  of  the  divisions  of 
mankind  —  other  than  whites — have  you  seen  in  your  own  neighborhood? 
(2)  What  different  nationalities  of  whites  ?  (3)  Find  pictures  illustrating  human 
life  in  the  various  zones.  (4)  Help  to  make  a  collection  of  pictures  for  the  school, 
to  illustrate  the  various  forms  of  shelter  and  clothing.  Also  find  such  pictures  in 
this  book.  (5)  Find  some  one  who  has  specimens  of  primitive  implements, 
as  Indian  arrowheads,  and  examine  them.  (6)  Find  out  something  about  the 
ways  in  which  savage  races  ornament  their  clothing  and  person. 


LLAMA 


Fig.  280. 

Some  of  the  animals  of  South  America 

283 


Fig.  U. 
A  Trail  in  the  Andes  Mountains  of  South  America. 


284 


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^  Montevideo 
■  ^\  no.  281. 

'    Map  Questions.  —  (1)    In  what  zones 
does  South  America  lie?    (2)  What  would 
_ryou  expect  the  climate  to  be  in  the  nor  th- 
in the  central  part?     In  the 
(3)   During  what  months 


CHONOS  i"65)V 


IkRCHIPELAGao 


WELLIlNGTON  I. 


St.Oeorge  Bay 
\  C.  Blanco 


joinparative  Area 


3 


45,215  Square  Miles 

L.  I.  fOATCS  CNCT-B  C^T  N.Y. 


Strait  of 
'  Magellan 


ij,  Cape  Horn 


Longptude     70^  West    from  60°  Greenwich 


ern  part? 

southern  part? 

does  winter  come  in  the  extreme  south? 

(4)  What  large  rivers  drain  the  continent? 

(5)  Do  you  find  any  lakes?  (6)  To  what 
extent  is  the  coast  line  irregular?  (7) 
Draw  an  outline  map  and  locate  upon 
it  the  mountains  and  rivers.  Add  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  principal  countries 
(8)   Are  there  many  islands?    Where  are 

most  of  them  ?    (9)"  Find  Cape  Horn.    It  is 

south  of  what  island  ?    What  strait  sepa- 
^fcs^''(2i^6* firirates    this    island    from    the    mainland? 

(10)  Which  country  has  most  railways? 
What  does  this  indicate  about  the  people  ? 

(11)  In  what  zone  is  that  country  ?  How 
may  the  climate  have  influenced  the  build- 
ing of  railways  ? 


Fig.  282, 

Relief  map  of  South  America.    In  what  portion  are  the  highlands?    Which  are  highest? 

Locate  the  lowlands. 


Paet  III 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


>J<«c 


Physiography.  —  North  and  South  America  resemble  each  other 
in  several  respects.  The  former  is  triangular  in  shape  and  has  its 
main  highland  masses  on  the  two  sides.     What  are  their  names? 


Fia.  283. 

Chimborazo,  Ecuador,  20,500  feet  high  ;  so  high  that,  though  under  the  equator,  it  is  snow- 
covered. 


The  western  mountains  are  the  younger  and  loftier,  and  they  have 
many  volcanic  cones.  They  occupy  a  great  breadth  of  country, 
the  westernmost,  or  Coast  Ranges,  rising  from  the  very  shores  of  the 
Pacific.  Between  the  extensive  highlands  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
continent  are  low  plains  stretching  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

South  America  is  likewise  triangular  in  shape,  broad  at  the  north 
and  tapering  toward  the  south,  and  its  principal  highlands  are  on 


286  SOUTH    AMERICA 

the  two  sides  (Fig.  282).  Those  on  the  west,  the  Andes  (Fig.  283), 
form  one  of  the  loftiest  mountain  systems  in  the  world,  and  between 
the  ranges  are  included  deep  valleys  and  lofty  plateaus.  Through- 
out the  entire  length  of  the  continent  these  mountains,  rising  from 
the  very  seacoast,  extend  inland  for  a  distance  of  many  miles.  Many 
of  the  highest  peaks  are  volcanic  cones,  one  of  them,  Aconcagua,  in 
Chile,  reaching  an  elevation  of  nearly  twenty-three  thousand  feet. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  South  America  the  most  extensive  high- 
lands are  those  in  eastern  Brazil  (Fig.  282).  This  region,  like  New 
England,  consists  of  ancient  rocks,  rising  in  the  form  of  high  hills 
and  low  mountains.  The  highest  point  is  a  little  over  ten  thousand 
feet.  The  Guiana  highland  (Fig.  282),  between  the  Amazon  and 
Orinoco  rivers,  resembles  the  upland  of  Brazil  and  may  be  consid- 
ered a  part  of  it,  although  separated  from  it  b}^  the  Amazon  lowland. 
The  remainder  of  the  continent  is  lowland  (Fig.  282)  and  mainly  a 
vast  plain  extending  from  southern  Argentina  to  the  Caribbean  Sea, 

In  South  America,  as  in  North  America,  the  growth  of  mountains  has 
raised  the  two  sides  of  the  continent  and  left  a  depression  into  which  the 
sea  once  entered.  But  waste  from  the  mountains,  washed  down  by  rain 
and  rivers,  has  filled  this  depression  and  built  the  broad  plains  that  are 
now  there.     By  uplift  these  plains  have  been  elevated  to  form  dry  land. 

In  two  important  respects  North  and  South  America  are  unlike  in 
physiography.  In  the  first  place,  their  large  rivers  flow  in  different 
directions.  Describe  from  memory  the  three  or  four  principal  river 
systems  of  North  America.  (Or  see  Fig.  42.)  Make  a  sketch  of 
the  three  largest  rivers  of  South  America.  One  of  these  is  the 
largest  in  the  world.  Which  is  it  ?  Which  one  most  nearly  cor- 
responds to  the  Mississippi  in  position  and  direction  of  flow  ? 

A  second  difference  between  the  two  continents  is  in  regard  to 
their  coast  lines.  It  will  be  remembered  that  much  of  the  North 
American  coast  has  been  made  irregular  by  the  sinking  of  the  land. 
Much  of  the  South  American  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been 
rising.  In  the  former  case,  many  fine  harbors  were  formed ;  in  the 
latter,  the  coast  line  is  made  straight  because  the  level  sea  bottom  is 
being  raised.  Notice  how  very  regular  is  most  of  the  western  coast 
of  South  America.  It  is  the  longest  regular  coast  line  in  the 
world ;  for  a  distance  of  three  thousand  miles  there  is  a  general 
absence  of  good  natural  harbors.  What  effect  must  this  have  upon 
the  development  of  the  continent  ? 


CLIMATE  287 

Climate.  —  A  large  portion  of  South  America  lies  in  the  tropical 
zone  and  consequently  has  a  hot  climate.  Where  does  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn  cross  the  continent  ?  The  portion  south  of  this  tropic 
reaches  into  the  south  temperate  zone,  and  its  climate,  therefore, 
resembles  that  of  the  United  States.  What  countries  of  South 
America  are  partly  or  wholly  in  the  temperate  zone  ?  During  what 
months  do  they  have  summer  ?  What  effect  on  temperature  are 
their  north  winds  likely  to  have  ? 

The  winds,  together  with  the  highlands,- are  the  key  to  the  rain- 
fall. On  the  map  (Fig.  247)  it  is  seen  that  the  belt  of  calms  extends 
across  the  continent  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  equator.     North  of 


Fig.  284. 
A  view  on  the  arid  plateau  of  Bolivia  —  a  train  of  alpacas  is  crossing  here. 

this  belt  the  northeast  trade  winds  blow  Fig.  (247),  while  south  of 
it  is  the  zone  of  southeast  trade  winds.  Still  farther  south  are  the 
horse  latitudes,  and  then  come  the  prevailing  westerlies  (Fig.  249), 
which  blow  across  the  southern  end  of  the  continent. 

We  may  therefore  expect  heavy  rainfall  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
equator  (Fig.  251),  where  the  air  is  constantly  rising.  The  north- 
ern coast  must  also  receive  abundant  rains  because  the  trade  winds 
come  from  the  ocean  and  are  forced  to  rise  in  passing  over  the 
slopes.  The  highlands  in  eastern  Brazil  must  likewise  be  well 
watered  by  the  vapor-laden  southeast  trades  (Fig.  251).  Of  course, 
these  winds  lose  much  of  their  moisture  in  traveling  across  the  con- 
tinent, but  on  approaching  the   Andes  they  are   forced  to  a  still 


288  SOUTH   AMEBIC  A 

greater  height ;  accordingly,  the  eastern  side  of  these  ranges  is  wet 
by  frequent  rains. 

South  of  the  belt  of  calms,  both  in  the  trade  wind  and  horse 
latitude  belts,  the  western  slopes  and  the  valleys  of  the  Andes 
(Fig.  251)  are  far  too  arid  for  agriculture  without  irrigation.  In 
this  region  large  areas  are  veritable  deserts.  This  arid  condition 
is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  mountains,  which  interfere  with  the 
trade  winds  so  that  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  south,  and 
therefore  parallel  to  the  coast  (Fig.  249).  Since  these  winds  are 
blowing  toward  the  equator,  and  therefore  becoming  steadily  warmer, 
they  do  not  give  up  their  moisture  and  form  rain.  Thus  there  are 
deserts  on  the  very  coast. 

Farther  south  the  influence  of  the  prevailing  westerlies  is  felt. 
In  this  part  of  the  continent,  therefore,  it  is  the  western  side  that 
receives  the  rain,  while  the  eastern  part  is  dry  (Fig.  250).  In  ris- 
ing over  the  land  these  winds  cause  abundant  rainfall  in  southern 
Chile;  but,  being  robbed  of  their  vapor  as  they  cross  the  mountains, 
they  descend  as  dry  winds  upon  the  plains  of  Patagonia.  With 
what  portion  of  the  United  States  may  the  climate  of  this  region  be 
compared  ? 

From  the  above  we  see  that  while  most  of  South  America  is  well 
supplied  with  rain,  two  extensive  areas  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
Andes  are  arid.     Locate  them  (Fig.  250). 

The  heavy  rain  in  the  tropical  section  of  the  continent  supplies  the 
three  great  rivers  with  an  abundance  of  water,  and  encourages  a  rank 
growth  of  tropical  vegetation.  But  each  year,  as  the  season  changes,  the 
belts  of  rainfall  migrate  northward  and  southward  (Figs.  255  and  256). 
Therefore  on  each  side  of  the  equator  is  a  belt  where  the  rainfall  varies 
with  the  season,  being  dry  at  one  time  of  year  and  well  watered  in  the 
opposite  season.  In  the  rainy  season  the  rivers  are  flooded,  and  vegeta- 
tion  grows  profusely ;  but  with  the  dry  season  the  streams  shrink  in  size, 
and  the  plains  become  dry  and  parched.  It  is  because  of  this  dry  period 
that  there  are  open  savannas^  or  grassy  plains,  both  north  and  south  of  the 
equatorial  forest.  They  are  called  llanos  in  the  Orinoco  valley,  campos  in 
Brazil,  and  pampas  in  Argentina.  Here  trees  cannot  survive  the  drought ; 
but  grass  is  able  to  mature  its  seeds  during  the  rainy  season,  then  dies 
down  to  the  ground  and  remains  dormant  until  the  next  period  of  rains. 

Plant  and  Animal  Life. — In  the  warm,  rainy  belt  the  great 
humidity  and  high  temperature  are  favorable  to  an  extraordinary 
growth  of  plant  life.     So  dense  are  the  vast  jungles  of  the  Amazon 


fLANT   AND    ANIMAL    LIFE 


28^ 


that  travel  through  them  is  almost  impossible  (p.  294)  ;  in  fact, 
much  of  this  forest  wilderness  has  never  been  explored. 

In  the  desert  of  the  west  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  plant  life  is  very 
scanty  (Fig.  284).  There  are  some  parts,  for  instance  the  desert  of 
Atacama  in  northern  Chile,  where  there  is  almost  no  life  of  any  kind. 

In  those  sections  where  the  climate  is  cool  and  the  rainfall  moder- 
ate, as  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  in  the  south  temperate  zone,  the 
land  is  forest-covered.  The  extreme  southern  part  of  the  continent 
has  a  climate  so  cold  that  the  plants  become  dwarfed,  as  in  the  case 
near  the  tree  line  in  northern  Canada. 

In  the  tropical  forest  there  is  a  great  variety  of  tree-dwelling  animals, 
among  which  are  many  insects  and  beautiful  birds.  Among  the  larger 
animals  may  be  mentioned  the  fruit-eating  monkey,  the  fierce  jaguar 
(Fig.  280),  which  preys  upon  other  animals,  and  the  sloth  (Fig.  280),  a 


Fig.  285. 

Tropical  vegetation  in  the  damp  lowlands  of  Ecuador,  where  there  are  heavy  equatorial 

rains.    The  boats  are  dugouts,  that  is,  logs  hollowed  out  in  boat  form  by  natives. 

creature  which  sleeps  suspended,  back  downward,  from  the  branches  of 
the  trees.  There  are  also  many  reptiles,  including  serpents  and  the  iguana 
(Fig.  280),  a  tree  lizard  often  several  feet  in  length.  Some  of  the  serpents 
are  small  and  poisonous ;  others,  like  the  boa  constrictor  (Fig.  280),  are 
large  and  powerful  enough  to  crush  a  deer  in  their  coils.  The  boa,  coiled 
among  the  trees  awaiting  its  prey,  resembles  a  vine. 

The  beautiful  butterflies  and  ants  are   most  noticeable   among  the 
insects.     Among  the  most  interesting  insects  are  the  termites,  commonly 


290 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


called  white  ants,  which  live  in  colonies,  and  build  houses  of  earth.  With 
so  many  insects  there  are  naturally  numerous  species  of  insect  eaters. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  ant-eater  (Fig.  280).  Its 
long  claws  are  adapted  to  digging  the  ants  from  their  earthy  or  woody 
dwelling  places,  while  its  sharp-pointed  snout  and  long  tongue  aid  it  in 
finding  and  devouring  its  food. 

Besides  these  animals  there  is  the  tapir  (Fig.  280),  five  or  six  feet 
in  length,  which  wanders  about  at  night,  feeding  along  the  watercourses  j 
and  the  armadillo  (Fig.  280),  a  burrowing  animal  protected  by  an  armor. 
When  attacked  by  an  enemy,  the  armadillo  rolls  itself  into  a  ball,  inclos- 
ing its  soft  under  parts.  In  the  river  waters  and  swamps  are  fishes, 
turtles,  and  alligators  (Fig.  280).  The  turtle  eggs  and  fish  are  among  the 
principal  food  for  the  forest  Indians.  Here  also  is  found  the  manatee 
(Fig.  280),  or  sea  cow,  a  mammal  that  has  become  adapted  to  life  in  the 
water.  It  lives  both  in  fresh  and  salt  water,  and  aseends  the  Amazon 
even  as  far  as  Ecuador. 

On  the  open  plains,  herds  of  deer  roam  about,  and  also  the  rhea  (Fig. 
280),  —  often  called  the  American  ostrich,  —  one  of  the  few  large  running 
birds.  It  lives  on  the  open  plains,  as  in  Patagonia,  where  are  also  found 
herds  of  guanaco,  a  kind  of  wild  llama. 

Among  the  crags  and  peaks  of  the  Andes  dwells  the  condor  (Fig.  280), 
the  largest  of  the  flying  birds  —  so  large  that  it  kills  and  carries  off  small 
deer.     In  the  mountain  valleys  live  the  llama  (Fig.  280),  and  its  allies,  the 

vicuna  and  alpaca,  both  wild  and  do- 
mesticated (Figs.  284  and  301).  Like 
other  mountain  dwellers  the  llama  is 
sure-footed  on  the  rocks,  and  is  thus 
of  great  use  as  a  beast  of  burden  ;  and 
the  cold  climate  causes  it  to  have  a 
thick  coat  of  wool  which  is  of  value  to 
man.  Because  of  its  usefulness  the 
llama  is  sometimes  called  the  Ameri- 
can camel. 

The  People. — When  South  Amer- 
ica was  discovered  by  Columbus,  it 
was  inhabited  solely  by  red  men. 
Of  these  many  were   typical   sav- 
ages ;  and  even  at  the  present  day 
some  of  the  forest  Indians  are  sav- 
ages, living  solely  upon  fish,  game, 
and  the  abundant  fruits.    It  is  unsafe  for  white  men  to  go  among  them, 
and  indeed  there  are  forest  tribes  which  still  practice  cannibalism. 
Along  the  coast  and  some  of  the  larger  rivers  the  red  men  found 
by  the  early  explorers  were  more  advanced.     Like  most  of  the  North 


Fig.  286. 

A  cannibal  girl  from  the  tropical  forest 
of  Peru. 


PLANT   AND    ANIMAL    LIFE 


291 


American  Indians,  they  were  in  the  lower  stages  of  barbarism. 
In  a  crude  way  they  cultivated  the  soil  and  manufactured  a  few 
simple  implements.  Many  Indians  in  the  more  remote  districts 
still  live  in  this  primitive  way,  though  large  numbers  have  mixed 
with  the  white  settlers  and  adopted  their  customs. 

But  among  the  Andes,  especially  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Ecuador, 
the  Spanish  explorers  found  tribes  of  Indians,  under  control  of  the 
Incas,  who  had  developed  far  beyond  their  neighbors.  Indeed,  like 
the  Pueblo  and  Aztec  Indians  of  North  America  (p.  31),  they  had 


Fig.  287. 
A  bridge  made  by  the  Indians. 


reached  the  early  stages  of  civilization.  The  temperate  climate 
of  their  mountain  valley  homes  favored  advance.  And  the  protec- 
tion from  the  inroads  of  their  more  savage  neighbors,  which  the 
arid  country  and  mountain  barriers  offered,  gave  them  the  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  arts  and  to  advance  in  other  ways. 

The  Spanish,  encouraged  by  the  discovery  of  rich  deposits  of 
gold  and  silver,  seized  almost  all  of  South  America  except  Brazil, 
which  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese.  They  treated  the  aborigines 
with  great  cruelty,  especially  the  Incas,  whom  they  robbed  of  their 
treasures  and  reduced  to  slavery.     As  in  North  America,  the  Span- 


292 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


iards  intermarried  freely  with  the  Indians,  so  that  the  present  inhab- 
itants of  South  America  are  to  a  large  extent  of  mixed  blood.  The 
introduction  of  negro  slaves  had  led  to  a  still  greater  mixture  of 
peoples.  Therefore,  while  there  are  still  pure-blooded  Indians  and 
negroes,  and  also  pure-blooded  white  men,  especially  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  the  greater  number  of  the  South  Americans  are  a  mixture 
of  two  or  more  of  these  very  different  races.  This  fact  is  one  of  the 
main  reasons  for  the  unstable  governments  of  some  of  the  South 
American  countries. 

Spain  maintained  her  control  in  South  America  for  fully  three 
hundred  years.  But  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
colonies  revolted  and  established  themselves  as  independent  republics, 
modeled  after  the  United  States.  They  were  led  to  fight  for  their 
independence  partly  because  of  the  success  of  our  own  Revolution, 
but  chiefly  because  of  oppression  by  the  Spaniards,  who  treated 
their  colonies  merely  as  sources  of  wealth. 

Brazil  also  became  in- 
dependent of  Portugal, 
and,  after  being  for  a  long 
time  ruled  by  an  emperor, 
established  a  republican 
form  of  government  in 
1889.  Of  late  there  have 
been  many  immigrants 
from  European  countries, 
especially  from  Germany 
and  southern  Europe. 
Special  inducements  have 
been  offered  to  such  colo- 
nists, and  the  recent  devel- 
opment  in  portions  of 
South  America,  particu- 
larly of  Argentina  and 
southern  Brazil,  has  been 
partly  due  to  these  immi- 
grants. 


SOUTH   AMERICA. 
Density  of  Population. 
3  htss  thu  1  per  Squan  Mile. 


2&-12& 
125-500 


Cities  with  over  100,000 
inUbltuu  m  ibown. 


FlQ.   288, 


Bbazil 

Physiography  and  Cli- 
mate. —  This  is  the  largest 


BItAZIL 


298 


country  in  South  America.  It  is  even  larger  than  the  United  States 
without  Alaska,  and  nearly  as  large  as  Europe.  While  extending 
north  of  the  equator  on  one  side,  it  extends  into  the  south  temperate 
zone  on  the  other  side.  How  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  it 
include?  Since  so  large  a  part  of  Brazil  is  in  the  torrid  zone  and 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  continent,  its  climate  is  not  only  warm 
but  moist.     Why  the  latter? 

Eastern  Brazil  is  a  highland  of  ancient  mountains  worn  down 
to  the  condition  of  hills  and  low  mountains.  Numerous  streams 
drain  this  upland  in  various  directions.  Point  out  some  of 
these  (Fig.  281).  Trace  the  divide  between  those  flowing  into 
the  Amazon  and  Parana  and  those  flowing  into  the  Atlantic. 
What  is  the  name  of  the  largest  river  emptying  directly  into  the 
Atlantic  ? 

The  northern  third  of  Brazil  is  mainly  a  vast  level  plain,  through- 
out  most  of  its  extent  occupied  by  dense  forest  and  drained  by  the 
Amazon.  What  is  the  condition  on  the  campos  ?  Why  ?  (p.  288). 
The  rainfall  in  the  Ama- 
zon valley  is  so  heavy 
and  the  slope  of  the 
land  so  gentle,  that  the 
Amazon  and  its  larger 
tributaries  are  swollen  to 
great  breadth.  At  times 
of  flood  the  rivers  over- 
flow the  surrounding  coun- 
try and  transform  it  to  an 
immense  swamp  through 
which  many  branching 
channels  extend.  In  places 
the  Amazon  is  several  miles 
in  width,  and  resembles  a 
great  lake  rather  than  a 
river.  Boats  are  able  to 
pass  up  the  river  nearly 
to  the  base  of  the  Andes, 
a  distance  of  twenty-two 
hundred  miles  from  the 
seacoast.  Some  of  the  tributaries  are  also  navigable.  Along  the 
route  of  navigation  there  are  settlements,  such  as  Manaos  which  is 


Fia.  289. 

Some  of  the  Indians  of  tropical  South  America. 
Notice  the  nose  and  lip  ornaments. 


294 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


reached  by  ocean  steamers;  but  at  a  distance  from  the  river  there 
is  nothing  but  an  almost  unknown  wilderness  (Fig.  288). 

The  Tropical  Forest.  —  The  Amazon  forest  offers  a  typical  illustration 
of  the  tropical  forest,  where  plants,  encouraged  by  the  uniformly  high 
temperature  and  great  dampness,  grow  luxuriantly  in  the  rich  soil.  Not 
only  is  the  rainfall  heavy,  but  evaporation  is  retarded  by  the  dense  vege- 
tation, so  that  the  forest  is  reeking  with  moisture.  Consequently  at  night 
time,  when  the  temperature  falls,  such  heavy  dews  collect  that  the  plants 
are  wet  by  them  as  by  a  rain. 

One  of  the  features  of  such  a  forest  is  the  dense  gloom  and  the  silence, 
broken  now  and  then  by  the  crash  of  a  falling  tree,  or  the  sorrowful  notes 
of  birds,  or  the  frightful  howling  of  monkeys,  or  perchance  the  shrill 
scream  of  an  animal  which  has  fallen  a  prey  to  the  boa  (Fig.  280).  Why 
might  we  expect  the  animals  in  large  part  to  be  tree  dwellers  ? 

To  one  whose  home  is  in  the  temperate  zone  the  tropical  forest  appears 
very  strange,  for  the  woods  are  much  the  same  throughout  the  year.  There 
is  no  time  when  all  the  trees  send  forth  their  leaves  and  blossoms ;  nor  is 
there  a  time  when  all  the  leaves  change  and  fall  to  the  ground.  Some  of 
the  trees  blossom  throughout  the  year;  others  have  their  blossoms  at 
regular  seasons ;  thus  flowers  and  fruit  may  be  seen  at  all  times  of  the 
year. 

Products  of  the  Forest.  — Among  the  trees  of  the  tropical  forest  are 
many  useful  kinds.  Some  produce  gums,  such  as  caoutchouc^  from 
which  rubber  is  made  ;    or  edible  fruits  and  nuts,  or  valuable  timber 

and  dyewoods.  In  fact, 
the  name  Brazil  is  derived 
from  a  word  applied  to  a 
dyewood  found  in  the 
Amazon  forests. 

Many  of  the  inhabitants 
near  the  rivers,  who  have 
partially  adopted  the  cus- 
toms of  civilization,  make 
long  journeys  into  the  for- 
est to  collect  the  products, 
both  for  their  own  use  and 
for  shipment  down  the  Amazon.  But  the  difficulties  of  travel,  and  the 
warmth  and  dampness  of  the  climate,  are  opposed  to  much  work. 

The  Indians  still  cultivate  the  mandioca^  which  was  one  of  their  princi- 
pal sources  of  food  when  white  men  appeared.  This  plant  has  beneath 
the  soil  an  enlargement  of  the  root  which  in  shape  resembiea  a  long  tweet 


...    21H). 

An  Indian  but  on  the  Amazon. 


BRAZIL 


295 


potato.  A  dish  of  dry  meal,  or  farina,  made  from  the  mandioca  is  commonly 
seen  on  Brazilian  tables,  and  it  is  often  stewed  with  beans.  Mandioca  bears 
much  the  same  relation  to  these  people  that  wheat  bears  to  those  who  live 
in  temperate  climates.     It  is  from  this  plant  that  tapioca  is  made. 

Rubber.  —  The  natives  are  also  engaged  in  obtaining  rubber,  a 
product  of  immense  importance  because  of  its  many  uses,  for  example, 
as  a  packing  around  the  valves  of  machinery,  and  as  an  insulator 
around  wires  and  cables.     Name  other  uses  of  rubber. 

Coffee  Raising. — The  coffee  tree  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia  in 
Africa.     It  was  introduced  into  Brazil   in  the  eighteenth  century 


Fig.  291. 
A  part  of  the  city  and  harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 


and  has  proved  so  successful  that  Brazil  now  produces  more  than 
one  half  of  all  the  coffee  raised  in  the  world.  Coffee  is  cultivated 
all  the  way  from  southern  Brazil  to  the  Amazon,  and  there  are  fully 
five  hundred  million  coffee  trees  in  Brazil  alone  (Fig.  200). 

Formerly  most  of  the  Brazilian  coffee  left  the  port  of  Eio  de 
Janeiro,  but  now  more  than  half  of  it  is  sent  from  Santos.  Coffee  is 
the  principal  export  of  Brazil,  and  much  of  it  comes  to  the  United  States. 


296  SOUTH   AMERICA 

Other  Industries  in  Brazil.  —  On  the  highlands  of  Brazil,  where 
coffee  raising  is  carried  on,  other  crops  are  also  produced,  such  as  cot- 
ton, sugar,  tobacco,  fruit,  and  corn.  Much  cocoa  is  cultivated  in  the 
tropical  section,  and  in  the  extreme  south  many  cattle  are  raised. 
The  rocks  of  the  highlands  have  produced  some  valuable  minerals, 
especially  gold  and  diamonds.  Indeed,  at  one  time,  the  southern 
part  of  Brazil  was  the  principal  diamond-producing  region  in  the 
world.  Both  coal  and  iron  are  also  present,  though  they  are  not  yet 
extensively  mined. 

Cities.  —  The  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  republic  is  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  a  city  of  over  eight  hundred  thousand  people,  and  the 
second  in  size  in  South  America.  It  is  situated  upon  a  fine  harbor 
(Fig.  291)  and  is  surrounded  by  excellent  farming  country  and 
coffee  plantations.  Several  other  Brazilian  cities  are  seaports  con- 
nected with  the  interior  by  short  railway  lines  which  bring  the  coffee 
and  other  products  for  shipment.  The  most  important  are  Bahia, 
Santos,  the  seaport  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  Pernambuco,  the  chief  port 
for  the  export  of  sugar  and  cotton.  Compare  the  size  of  each  of 
these  with  some  city  in  the  United  States  (Tables  in  Appendix, 
pp.  iv-viii).  On  the  Para  River,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
and  connected  with  it  by  a  branch  of  the  river,  is  Paka,  from  which 
most  of  the  rubber,  vanilla,  and  other  products  from  the  Amazon 
forest  are  shipped  to  America  and  Europe. 

Argentina 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  This  is  by  far  the  most  advanced 
of  South  American  countries,  and  the  reasons  are  not  difiScult  to 
understand.  In  the  first  place,  Argentina  extends  from  just  within 
the  torrid  zone  to  the  extreme  southern  end  of  South  America. 
Thus  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  within  the  temperate  zone, 
the  climate  of  which  favors  the  development  of  energetic  people. 
Also  the  range  of  climate,  from  arid  to  rainy  (Fig.  250)  and  from 
tropical  to  temperate,  insures  a  considerable  range  of  products.  A 
second  reason  for  rapid  advancement  is  the  fact  that,  while  there 
are  mountains  in  the  west,  the  remainder  of  the  country  is  largely 
one  vast  expanse  of  pampas  (Fig.  292).  These  open,  treeless  plains 
have  made  it  easy  for  settlers  to  move  about  and  to  carry  on  the 
industries  of  farming  and  ranching.  This  is  quite  in  contrast  to  the 
unfavorable  conditions  in  the  Amazon  valle-y  ;  but  it  may  be  com- 


ARGENTINA 


297 


pared  with  the  ease  of  settlement  which  the  plains  and  prairies  of 
the  United  States  have  afforded. 

Such  favorable  conditions  have  served  to  attract  many  immi- 
grants from  Europe,  and  there  is,  therefore,  a  larger  percentage  of 
pure-blooded  whites  here  than  in  other  parts  of  South  America. 
Largely  for  this  reason  the  government  of  Argentina  is  decidedly 
better  than  that  in  most  South  American  countries. 

Cattle  Raising.  —  The  open  plains  are  well  adapted  to  ranching,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  there  are  nearly  100,000,000  sheep  and  25,000,000 
cattle  in  this  country.  Stock  raising  in  Argentina  .  differs  in  some 
respects  from  ranching  in  the  United  States  (pp.  128  and  161). 


Fig.  292. 
On  the  pampas  of  Argentina. 

Formerly  the  herds  roamed  over  the  plains,  feeding  on  government 
land,  as  is  the  custom  in  the  United  States.  The  government  of  Argen- 
tina, however,  recognizing  that  ranching  would  be  more  successful  if  the 
cattle  owners  controlled  large  bodies  of  land,  has  been  in  the  habit  of  sell- 
ing large  tracts  to  the  ranchmen,  who  after  purchase  fence  in  their  land. 
In  western  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  ranchmen  cannot  obtain 
large  tracts  of  government  land  because  of  the  laws  which  restrict  its  sale 
to  small  blocks.  But  some  of  our  western  land,  owned  by  the  railways, 
may  be  bought  in  large  tracts,  and  there  the  custom  is  growing  to  purchase 
and  fence  land,  introduce  better  stock,  and  care  for  it,  as  in  Argentina. 


Farming.  —  The  climate  and  soil  in  many  parts  of  Argentina  are 
favorable  to  agriculture.     In  the  warm  northern  portion  sugar  cane, 


298  SOUTH   AMERICA 

coffee,  and  tobacco  are  produced;  in  the  more  temperate  part,  where 
the  rainfall  is  sufficient,  grains  and  alfalfa  are  raised.  There  is  also 
much  fruit  raising,  especially  grapes,  from  which  wine  and  raisins 
are  made. 

Wheat  is  the  most  important  agricultural  product,  the  value  of 
the  crop  being  fully  150,000,000  a  year,  making  the  Argentine  plains, 
one  of  the  great  wheat-producing  sections  of  the  world.  The  climate 
is  favorable,  the  soil  fertile,  and  the  land  level  or  gently  rolling,  as 
in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  Agriculture  in  the  extreme  south 
is  prohibited  by  the  cold ;  but  sheep  raising  is  carried  on  even  in 
Patagonia  and  on  the  stormy  islands  beyond  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

Manufacturing  and  Commerce.  —  Besides  the  industries  men- 
tioned above,  there  is  some  lumbering  and  mining  in  the  mountain- 
ous portion.  But  although  the  words  Argentina  and  Plata  mean 
silver,  their  use  as  proper  names  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  natives 
wore  silver  ornaments,  rather  than  from  any  abundance  of  the  white 
metal  in  Argentina. 

In  the  large  cities  there  is  much  manufacturing,  largely  con- 
nected with  the  raw  products  of  the  country,  as,  for  instance, 
dairying,  woolen  mills,  flour,  sugar,  wine,  and  cotton  manufactur- 
ing, the  preparation  of  hides,  etc.  Nevertheless,  a  large  part  of  the 
raw  products  is  sent  abroad,  particularly  wool,  sheepskins,  hides, 
wheat,  corn,  and  meat.  On  the  other  hand,  machinery,  cloth,  and 
other  manufactured  articles  must  be  imported. 

With  such  a  development  of  the  resources  it  is  natural  that 
there  should  be  means  of  ready  transportation.  The  broad  Parana 
River,  which  empties  into  the  Plata  estuary,  offers  extensive  water 
connection  with  the  interior ;  and  railways  ramify  the  well-settled 
portions  of  the  country,  connecting  all  the  important  cities.  In 
fact,  because  of  the  superior  development  of  Argentina,  there  are 
more  railways  here  than  in  any  other  South  American  country.  In 
resources,  industrial  development,  government,  and  educational  sys- 
tem Argentina,  of  all  the  South  American  countries,  bears  the  closest 
resemblance  to  the  United  States. 

Cities.  —  By  far  the  most  important  city  is  Buenos  Aires,  which 
is  the  largest  city  in  South  America,  and  one  of  the  great  cities 
of  the  world.  There  is  a  certain  resemblance  between  Buenos 
Aires  and  New  York,  the  metropolis  of  North  America. 

Each  is  situated  on  a  good  harbor  on  an  estuary,  and  each  has  water 
connection  with  a  very  productive  interior  having  a  temperate  climate. 


URUGUAY   AND    PARAGUAY  299 

Moreover,  from  various  parts  of  the  interior,  in  each  case,  railway  lines 
converge  toward  the  seaport,  while  steamship  lines  extend  to  all  quarters 
of  the  globe.  New  York,  however,  is  a  gateway  to  a  much  larger  and 
more  varied  country,  and  one  of  greater  resources.  In  addition,  New 
York  has  been  developed  for  a  longer  time.  Consequently  it  is  much 
larger  than  Buenos  Aires. 

Buenos  Aires  is  a  busy  and  rapidly  growing  city  with  much  manufac- 
turing, especially  flour  milling,  brewing,  and  the  canning  and  preserving 
of  meat.  It  also  has  an  extensive  commerce.  Just  below  the  city,  on  the 
Plata  estuary,  is  the  seaport  of  La  Plata  ;  and  upstream,  on  the  Parana, 
is  the  rapidly  growing  city  of  Eosario,  which  is  an  important  railway 
center  as  well  as  a  river  port.  In  the  interior  are  a  number  of  towns  and 
cities,  among  which  the  railway  center  Cordoba  is  the  largest. 


Uruguay  and  Paraguay 

Uruguay.  —  Like  so  much  of  Argentina,  this  is  a  region  of  plains, 
weU  watered  and  excellently  adapted  to  agriculture.  Naturally, 
therefore,  cattle  and  sheep  raising  are  important  industries.     But 


Fig.  293. 
Ranch  houses  on  the  plains  of  Uruguay. 

although  the  climate  and  soil  are  favorable  to  the  same  crops  that 
thrive  in  northern  Argentina,  there  has  been  little  progress  in  agri- 
culture. Indeed,  quite  in  contrast  to  its  neighbor  Argentina,  this 
country  is  but  slightly  developed.  The  government  is  very  bad 
indeed,  for  a  iew  men  control  the  army  and  make  and  unmake  presi- 
dents almost  at  will. 

The  principal  products  of  Uruguay  are  those  connected  with 
cattle  and  sheep  ;  namely,  dried  beef,  corned  beef,  ox  tongues,  hides, 
tallow,  horns,  sheepskins,  and  wool.  The  famous  Liebig  extract  of 
beef  is  made  in  this  country.     The  company  disposes  of  more  than 


800  SOUTH   AMERICA 

one  thousand  cattle  a  day  during  the  summer  months,  and  exports 
tongues,  canned  meats,  beef  extracts,  and  other  products,  to  the 
value  of  $15,000,000  a  year. 

The  capital  and  largest  city  is  the  seaport  of  Montevideo,  situ- 
ated at  one  end  of  a  semicircular  bay  on  the  Plata  estuary. 

Paraguay.  —  Like  Bolivia  this  little  country  is  without  a  sea- 
coast,  though  it  has  access  to  the  sea  by  way  of  the  Parana  River. 
It  is  a  region  of  hills  and  plains  covered  with  forests  in  part,  but 
with  many  tracts  of  pasture  land  upon  which  large  herds  of  cattle 
feed.  The  climate  is  hot  and  dry,  with  most  of  the  hot  winds  from 
the  north.  Fortunately  most  of  the  rain  falls  during  the  hot  sum- 
mer, when  the  ocean  winds  blow  toward  the  heated  land. 

The  agricultural  products  are  those  of  the  warm  temperate  and 
tropical  zones,  including  tobacco,  rice,  sugar  cane,  and  oranges, 
while  from  the  forests  rubber,  dyewoods,  and  valuable  timber  are 
obtained.  There  is  but  one  railway,  which  connects  the  capital, 
Asuncion,  with  Montevideo  on  the  sea. 

A  peculiar  product,  and  the  principal  export  of  this  country,  is  yerba 
mat^,  or  Paraguay  tea.  Although  not  used  as  extensively  as  our  tea, 
which  comes  mainly  from  China  and  Japan,  it  is  very  popular  in  South 
America,  where  its  use  was  learned  from  the  red  men. 


The  Guianas  and  Venezuela 

The  Guianas.  —  North  of  Brazil  are  three  small  countries,  the 
only  portions  of  the  South  American  continent  now  under  control 
of  European  nations.  They  belong  to  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and 
France,  respectively,  and  are  known  as  British  Gruiana,  French 
Guiana,  and  Dutch  G-uiana,  or  Surinam.  Find  the  capital  of  each. 
Gold  is  obtained  in  each  of  the  Guianas,  although  the  development 
in  this  direction  has  gone  little  farther  than  the  washing  of  gravels. 

In  these  small  countries  a  large  part  of  the  surface  is  still  a  forest 
wilderness  inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians  who  have  little  contact  with 
white  men.  This  tropical  forest,  like  that  of  the  Amazon,  which 
it  closely  resembles,  supplies  rubber  and  valuable  timber;  but  its 
resources  are  only  slightly  developed.  Near  the  coast,  however, 
there  is  a  strip  of  cultivated  land  from  which  is  obtained  sugar  cane, 
bananas,  cotton,  and  a  few  other  products.  Of  late,  especially  in 
Dutch  Guiana,  attention  has  been  turned  to  the  production  of  cocoa 
and  coffee. 


THE    0UIANA8   AND    VENEZUELA 


801 


The  Guianas  are  so  slightly  developed  that  there  is  but  one 
short  railway,  and  in  most  sections  there  are  almost  no  roads.  There 
are  practically  no  exports  except  sugar,  molasses,  and  rum  —  all 
made  from  sugar  cane.  Flour,  clothing,  and  other  manufactured 
articles  are  imported. 

Venezuela.^ — This  country  includes  one  of  the  spurs  of  the 
Andes  and  also  a  portion  of  the  Guiana  highland.  But  a  large 
part  of  Venezuela  is  occupied  by  the  broad  plains  of  the  Orinoco 
valley.  Some  of  these  plains,  the  treeless  llanos  (p.  288),  are  the 
seat  of  extensive  cattle  raising,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pampas  of 
Argentina.  In  parts  of  Venezuela  are  vast  forests  which  produce 
valuable  dye  woods  and  rubber.  Among  the  mountains  also  are 
found  rich  mineral  deposits,  especially  gold. 


Fia.  294. 
A  cocoanut  grove  on  the  northern  coast  of  South  America. 


There  is  some  agriculture.  Hardy  crops,  like  potatoes,  beans, 
and  barley,  are  raised  even  at  altitudes  of  eight  thousand  feet ;  but 
below  five  thousand  feet  are  found  such  semi-tropical  and  tropical 
products  as  sugar  cane,  bananas,  cocoa,  and  coffee.  The  latter  is 
the  chief  export;  in  fact,  Venezuela  is  one  of  the  leading  coffee- 
producing  sections  of  South  America. 

The  capital,  Caracas,  five  or  six  miles  from  the  sea,  is  situated 
upon  a  highland  over  three  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is 
connected  with  its  ports  by  a  short  railway  line  which  winds  about 
in  its  descent  to  the  sea. 

1  This  name,  which  means  "little  Venice,"  was  applied  to  the  country  because, 
\when  first  visited  in  1499,  white  men  found  an  Indian  village  built  on  piles  or  posts  in 
•Jde  water  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Maracaifbo. 


302 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


In  1812  Caracas  was  visited  by  one  of  the  most  terrible  earthquakes 
ever  recorded.  It  being  Ascension  Day,  a  great  part  of  the  population  was 
at  church.  The  first  shock  caused  the  bell  to  toll,  but  after  all  danger 
was  thought  past,  there  came  a  terrible  subterranean  noise,  resembling  the 
rolling  of  thunder,  but  louder  and  longer.  Then  came  a  shaking  of  the 
earth  so  tremendous  that  churches  and  houses  were  overthrown  and  the 
inhabitants  buried  beneath  their  ruins.  On  that  day  fully  twelve  thousand 
persons  perished.  People  were  told  that  it  was  sent  as  a  punishment  for 
revolting  from  the  rule  of  Spain. 


Tropical  Andean  Countries 

Points  of  Resemblance.  —  These  countries,  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Peru,  and  Bolivia,  are  all  crossed  by  the  lofty  Andes  and  are  there- 


FiQ.  295. 
Building  houses  in  a  clearing  in  the  forest  of  Peru  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes. 


fore  mountainous.  Each  of  them  extends  eastward  beyond  the 
mountains,  to  the  plains  of  the  upper  Amazon  and  Orinoco  valleys. 
In  Colombia  these  plains  include  a  portion  of  the  llanos.  The  head 
waters  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  in  the  region  of  the  equator 


TROPICAL    ANDEAN    COUNTRIES  808 

have  never  been  fully  explored,  and  the  exact  boundaries  of  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  and  Peru  have  never  been  officially  determined  by  treaty. 
For  this  reason  maps  and  geographies  differ  widely  in  the  matter. 

There  is,  of  course,  great  variety  of  climate  in  this  section. 
Tropical  heat  prevails  throughout  the  lowlands  (Fig.  285)  ;  but  the 
heavy  rainfall  near  the  equator  contrasts  strikingly  with  the  arid 
conditions  of  southern  Peru  and  northern  Chile,  which  lie  in  the 
belt  of  southeast  trades  (p.  287). 

The  elevation  due  to  mountains  and  plateaus  also  causes  differences 
in  climate.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  vegetation.  Up  to  an  alti- 
tude of  three  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet,  bananas,  sugar  cane,  cocoa, 
and  other  plants  of  hot  climates  flourish.  Above  this,  to  an  elevation 
of  six  or  seven  thousand  feet,  the  cooler  climate  permits  the  growth  of 
tobacco,  corn,  and  coffee.  From  this  height  up  to  about  ten  thousand 
feet,  wheat  and  our  northern  vegetables  and  fruits  do  well ;  but  above  ten 
thousand  feet  the  bleak  mountain  peaks  are  too  cold  for  farming.  There 
is  therefore  a  great  variety  of  farm  products  in  western  South  America. 

The  fact  that  this  section  is  so  mountainous  furnishes  an  expla- 
nation of  its  importance  in  the  production  of  minerals.  Both  gold 
and  silver  ores,  and  other  minerals  as  well,  are  found  from  the 
northern  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  Andes,  and  this  is  therefore 
one  of  the  great  mineral-producing  regions  of  the  world.  It  was 
the  abundance  of  precious  metals  which  attracted  the  Spanish  to  the 
continent. 

Goaded  by  the  Spanish  misgovernment,  these  colonies  revolted 
in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  and  established  independent 
republics.  But  the  nature  of  the  population  was  such  that  real 
republican  government  was  impossible.  In  each  of  the  countries 
ambitious  leaders,  usually  generals  in  the  army,  have  again  and 
again  overturned  the  government.  This  has  seriously  interfered 
with  the  development  of  industry  and  commerce;  for  not  only  have 
lives  and  property  been  lost,  but  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  has  been 
introduced  which  has  prevented  settlers  from  coming,  and  capitalists 
from  investing  money  for  the  development  of  the  resources. 

None  of  the  capitals  of  the  Andean  countries  are  on  the  coast,  and 
several  are  in  the  interior  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  sea  level.  In 
choosing  such  sites  the  Spaniards  have  had  the  example  set  them  both  by 
their  Spanish  ancestors  and  by  the  Incas ;  for  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the 
IncaS;  and  Madrid,  the  Spanish  capital,  are  both  at  a  considerable  eleva- 


804 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


tion  above  sea  level  and  many  miles  from  the  coast.  The  principal 
objects  in  the  selection  of  these  sites  are  to  be  near  the  mines,  to  secure 
a  cooler  and  more  healthful  climate,  and  to  obtain  protection  from  attack 
by  sea. 

Doubtless  another  reason  why  these  cities  are  not  on  the  coast  is  the 
absence  of  good  harbors.  Throughout  almost  its  entire  extent,  except 
in  the  cold  southern  portion  of  Chile,  the  coast  is  wonderfully  straight. 
Why  ?  (p.  286).  Even  in  the  present  century  the  coast  has  risen  several 
feet  in  a  part  of  Peru  and  Chile.  This  uplift  occurred  during  earthquake 
shocks,  and  it  was,  without  question,  the  slipping  of  the  rocks  that 
caused  the  shocks. 

Panama.  —  This  small  republic  occupying  the  extreme  north- 
western part  of  South  America  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  of 

especial  importance  to  us, 
since  the  great  Panama  ship 
canal  is  being  constructed 
across  the  narrowest  part 
of  the  Isthmus.  Of  what 
advantage  will  such  a 
canal  be  to  the  United 
States?  What  two  cities 
are  situated  at  the  ends  of 
this  canal  route  ?  A  rail- 
way connects  these  two 
cities,  and  many  goods  are 
carried  over  it;  for  vessels 
approach  from  one  side 
and  unload  and  transfer  their  cargoes  to  the  other  ocean,  where 
other  vessels  await.  Thus  the  long  voyage  around  South  America 
may  be  saved. 

Colombia.  —  This  country,  named  after  Columbus,  has  seacoast 
on  both  oceans.  The  western  part  is  very  mountainous.  Here 
there  is  much  mineral  wealth,  gold  and  silver  being  of  most  impor- 
tance, though  emeralds  of  excellent  grade  are  also  obtained.  In  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  country,  on  the  other  hand,  are  treeless  llanos 
on  which  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised,  as  in  Venezuela. 
Coffee  is  the  principal  agricultural  product  and  the  chief  export ; 
but  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  cocoa  are  also  produced.  On  the 
mountain  slopes  the  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables  of  temperate 
climates  are  grown. 

Bogota,  the  capital  and  largest    city,  is    situated   far  in    the 


Fig.  296. 
A  native  village  on  the  Panama  Railway. 


MOUADOM 


805 


interior  and  at  an  elevation  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half  above  sea 
level.     It  has  an  agreeable  climate,  even  though  within  the  tropics. 

Ecuador.  —  Why  should  this  name,  the  Spanish  for  equator,  be 
applied  to  this  country  ?  In  the  Andes  of  Ecuador  there  are 
many  volcanoes,  including  Cotopaxi,  one  of  the  loftiest  active 
volcanoes  in  the  world,  and  Chimborazo,  which  is  still  higher  but 
no  longer  active. 

Naturally,  because  of  its  position,  this  country  has  a  hot,  damp 
climate  near  sea  level,  but  is  much  more  temperate  on  the  moun- 


FiG.  297. 

A  native  house  in  Ecuador.    Can  you  suggest  reasons  for  building  it  on  posts  rather 

than  on  the  ground  ? 

tain  slopes.  The  principal  occupations  are  cattle  raising  and  farm- 
ing. The  chief  farm  products  are  wheat  and  barley  on  the  highlands, 
and  coffee,  sugar  cane,  and  cocoa  on  the  warm  lowlands.  The  last 
named  is  the  most  important  product  of  Ecuador,  and  fully  one  fifth 
of  all  the  cocoa  produced  in  the  world  comes  from  that  country. 


Another  product  of  Ecuador,  and  of  some  other  South  American 
countries,  is  sarsaparilla.  The  rubber  industry  is  also  well  developed; 
and,  now  that  the  accessible  supply  from  wild  trees  is  becoming  exhausted, 
attention  is  being  given  to  the  planting  of  rubber  trees. 

Even  in  the  cities  there  is  practically  no  manufacturing.     One  of  th« 


806 


SOUTH    AMERICA 


reasons  for  this  is  the  almost  total  absence  of  roads,  making  the  transporta- 
tion of  heavy  machinery  very  difficult.  This  fact  also  interferes  greatly 
with  mining  operations  among  the  mountains.  Therefore,  although  there 
is  much  gold  and  silver,  mining  is  as  yet  slightly  developed. 

Quito,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Ecuador,  is  situated  among 
the  mountains  of  the  interior  at  an  elevation  of  about  nine  thousand 
feet.  Next  in  size  is  the  seaport  Guayaquil, 
the  westernmost  of  the  large  cities  of  South 
America.  It  is  in  W.  Long.  80°.  Does  it  lie 
to  the  east  or  west  of  Washington  ? 

Peru.  —  The  broad,  forest-covered  plains  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  rugged  Andes  are 
drained  by  some  of  the  larger  headwaters  of 
the  Amazon,  and  thus  Peru  is  provided  with 
water  communication  to  the  Atlantic.  While 
much  of  this  dense  tropical  forest  is  an  almost 
unexplored  wilderness,  the  mountain  valleys  are 
settled  mainly  by  the  descendants  of  the  Incas. 


In  Peru  there  are  not  only  variations  in  climate 
due  to  altitude,  as  in  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  but 
also  great  differences  in  rainfall.  The  heavy  fall  of 
rain  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  offers  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  arid  and  even  desert  climate 
along  their  western  slopes  (Fig.  250).  State  the 
cause  of  this  aridity  once  more  (p.  288).     So  little 

rain  falls  in  southwestern  Peru  that  in  some  parts,  even  close  by  the  sea, 

there  is  an  average  of  but  one  shower  in  seven  years. 


Fig.  298. 
A  Peruvian  Indian. 


Peru  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources  of  gold  and  silver  for 
the  Spanish  conquerors.  The  Incas  who  dwelt  there  had  accu- 
mulated gold  for  ornament,  and  this  the  Spaniards  seized.  Then, 
opening  mines,  they  forced  the  Indians  to  work  as  slaves.  Since 
that  time  vast  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  have  been  obtained  in 
that  country,  and  valuable  deposits  of  gold,  petroleum,  and  copper 
have  also  been  found. 

There  is  much  agriculture  in  Peru,  the  principal  crops  being  corn, 
wheat,  and  potatoes  among  the  mountains,  and  sugar  cane,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  coffee  in  the  lower,  warmer  sections.  Even  in  the  arid 
portion  there  is  some  farming  ;  for,  as  in  southern  California,  the 
rains  and  snows  of  the  mountains  supply  water  for  irrigation  in  the 


PEBU 


307 


valleys  and  on  the  narrow  coastal  plains.  Thus,  even  in  the  desert, 
there  are  some  gardens,  vineyards,  and  fields  of  cotton  and  sugar 
cane. 

Cinchona,  or  Peruvian  bark,  from  which  the  valuable  medicine  quinine 
is  obtained,  was  known  to  the  Incas  and  is  still  an  important  Peruvian 
product.  It  is  obtained  from  an  evergreen  tree  whose  leaves  resemble 
those  of  the  laurel. 


Fig.  299. 
^  view  of  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru. 


Before  the  year  1879  Peru  was  making  rapid  progress  ;  but 
by  a  war  with  Chile  at  that  time  the  nation  became  almost 
paralyzed.  Although  there  is  some  manufacturing,  especially 
connected  with  sugar  production,  most  manufactured  articles  must 
be  imported. 

Lima,  the  capital  (Fig.  299),  founded  by  the  Spanish  conquer- 
ors in  1535,  is  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Andes.  Callao,  the  sea- 
port of  Lima,  is  about  seven  miles  from  the  capital.  Its  harbor  is 
but  little  more  than  an  open  roadstead  partially  protected  by  an 
island  on  the  southwest  side.  However,  since  the  winds  and  ocean 
swells  are  from  the  south,  while  the  coast  is  practically  never  visited 
by  storms,  this  slight  protection  is  sufficient. 

12— A  O 


308 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


Arequipa,  at  an  elevation  of  seven  thousand  feet,  is  separated  from 
the  sea  by  sixty  miles  of  desert.  Cuzco,  the  old  Inca  capital,  is  on  an 
interior  table-land,  at  an  elevation  of  over  eleven  thousand  feet.  The  ruins 
of  the  Inca  citadels  and  "  palaces  "  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  many  pure- 
blooded  and  half-breed  Incas  still  dwell  in  and  near  the  city. 

Bolivia.  —  This  country,  named  after  General  Bolivar,  the  great 
South  American  leader  in  the  revolt  against  Spain,  was  robbed  of 
its  seacoast  by  Chile.  What  other  South  American  country  has  no  sea- 
coast?     In  a  broad  valley  between  the  mountains  is  Lake  Titicaca 

(Fig.  300),  partly  in  Peru 
and  partly  in  Bolivia.  This 
lake,  the  greatest  in  South 
America,  is  a  third  as  large 
as  Lake  Erie ;  and  its 
elevation,  twelve  thousand 
five  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea,  makes  it  the  most 
elevated  great  lake  in  the 
world. 

The  Incas  occupied  this 
region  also,  and  mined 
much  gold.  Besides  gold 
the  Spanish  discovered  veins  of  copper,  tin,  and  silver,  so  that 
mining  has  been  one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the 
country.  It  is  said  that  over  three  billion  dollars'  worth  of  silver 
has  been  secured  since  the  Spanish  discovery.  Bolivia  is  also  one 
of  the  great  tin-producing  countries  of  the  world. 

The  mining  and  reduction  of  the  ore  are  done  by  very  crude  methods. 
For  example,  instead  of  using  costly  machines  for  crushing  the  ore,  as  in 
the  United  States,  one  method  is  to  roll  boulders  around  on  the  ore.  Since 
there  are  practically  no  railways,  goods  are  transported  for  the  most  part 
by  trains  of  pack  mules,  donkeys,  alpacas,  or  llamas  (Figs.  284  and  301). 
The  llama  here,  as  in  Peru,  is  of  great  value  to  the  inhabitants,  not  merely 
as  a  beast  of  burden,  but  also  as  a  source  of  wool  for  clothing. 


Fig.  300. 

An  Indian  boy  in  a  rush  boat  on  Lake  Titicaca.  The 
fact  that  rushes  are  still  used  in  making  boats 
shows  how  these  people  cling  to  ancient  customs. 


Much  of  eastern  Bolivia,  like  eastern  Peru  and  the  Amazon  val- 
ley, is  an  almost  unknown  forest  wilderness.  But  in  the  mountain 
valleys  and  on  the  plateaus  agriculture  is  carried  on,  with  products 
similar  to  those  of  Peru.  Most  of  these  are  consumed  at  home, 
though  some  coffee  is  exported. 


CHILE 


309 


Better  railways  and  the  improvement  of  the  rivers,  so  as  to  per- 
mit river  transportation  to  the  Atlantic,  are  among  the  greatest 
needs  of  the  country.  Through  what  rivers  could  boats  pass  to  the 
sea  ?  Find  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  La  Paz,  the  largest  city,  has 
twice  as  many,  inhabitants  as  the  capital. 

Chile 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  Since  the  divide  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  drainage  forms  the  eastern  boundary  line  of 
Chile,  the  country  is  very  narrow  in  an  east  and  west  direction.  It 
is  also  very  mountainous  (Fig.  302).  Except  in  the  south,  the  coast 
line  is  regular  like  that  of  the  rest  of  South  America. 


Fig.  301. 
A  group  of  llamas  in  the  Andes. 

The  climate  varies  more  than  that  of  any  other  South  American 
country.  The  northern  part  is  within  the  torrid  zone,  while  the 
southern  end  reaches  far  into  the  bleak  south  temperate  zone  ;  and 
on  the  mountain  slopes  there  is  every  climate  from  frigid  ^  to  torrid. 
Moreover,  northern  Chile  is  arid  and  in  places  an  absolute  desert  ; 
but  central  and  southern  Chile  reach  into  the  rainy  belt  of  prevail- 
ing westerlies  (Fig.  249).  The  best  developed  section  lies  in  the 
middle  part,  between  the  hot,  arid  north  and  the  bleak,  rainy  south. 
This  part  of  Chile  is  bathed  by  a  cold  current  from  the  south,  which 
^  The  name  Chile  is  derived  from  an  Indian  word  signifTing  snow. 


310  SOUTH   AMERICA 

cools  the  air  as  the  Laborador  current  chills  that  of  New  England 
(Fig.  264). 

Mineral  Wealth.  —  There  is  much  mineral  wealth,  including  lead, 
silver,  coal,  and  copper.  The  latter  is  of  such  importance  that 
Chile,  like  the  United  States,  is  one  of  the  great  copper-producing 
countries  of  the  world.  There  are  also  beds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
which  are  situated  in  territories  taken  during  the  war  of  1879-80, 
and  at  present  yield  the  government  an  annual  income  of  fully 
110,000,000.     Nitrate  is  the  principal  export. 


Fig.  302. 
Snow-covered  mountains  of  Chile. 

The  nitrate  beds  occur  in  the  midst  of  the  desert  of  Atacama,  in  which 
rain  very  seldom  falls.  The  substance  occurs  in  layers  a  few  inches  to 
one  or  two  feet  thick,  over  an  area  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  breadth.  In 
color  it  varies,  according  to  the  impurities  contained.  After  being  dug 
out,  the  pure  nitrate  is  dissolved  and  separated  from  the  impurities,  and 
then  sold.  Its  chief  use  is  that  of  a  fertilizer,  for  which  purpose  great 
quantities  are  shipped  from  the  port  of  Iquique. 

Agriculture,  Manufacturing,  and  General  Development.  —  There  is 
much  agriculture  in  Chile,  especially  in  the  rainy  middle  portion. 
The  principal  crops  are  the  various  grains,  tobacco,  and  vegetables, 
thus  resembling  agriculture  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 
More  wheat  and  barley  are  produced  than  are  needed  at  home,  so 
that  Chile  helps  to  supply  other  nations  with  grain.  Large  herds  of 
cattle  are  also  reared,  and  sheep  raising  is  one  of  the  chief  industries 


qUSSTIOWS   AND    8UQQW8TI0MS  811 

in  southern  Chile.  Hides,  shoe  leather,  and  wool  are  exported. 
More  manufacturing  is  carried  on  than  in  most  South  American 
countries,  the  principal  kinds  being  flour  milling,  cheese  making, 
tanning,  and  shoe  manufacturing ;  but  as  elsewhere  on  that  conti- 
nent, machinery  and  many  other  manufactured  articles  are  purchased 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Chile  is  one  of  the  most  progressive  countries  in  South  America. 
Its  government  is  stable,  and  its  industries  are  well  developed.  This 
progress  is  doubtless  in  large  part  due  to  the  temperate  climate, 
which  requires  energy  on  the  part  of  its  inhabitants,  and  invites 
settlers  from  the  temperate  climate  of  Europe.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  two  most  advanced  nations  of  South  America  lie  side 
by  side  in  the  temperate  zone. 

Cities.  —  The  principal  cities  are  Santiago,  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  situated  inland,  and  Valparaiso,  its  seaport.  As  at 
Callao  (p.  307),  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso  is  open  to  the  north ;  but 
the  wind  seldom  blows  from  that  quarter. 

Islands  near  the  Continent 

The  Galapagos  Islands,  about  six  hundred  miles  west  of  Ecuador,  on 
the  equator,  are  a  group  of  small  volcanic  islands  owned  by  Ecuador. 
They  are  too  far  from  the  continent  to  show  on  our  map. 

Just  east  of  the  southern  tip  of  South  America  are  the  Falkland 
Islands,  which  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Still  farther  east  are  the  islands 
of  South  Oeoi-gia,  also  British.  Just  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  is  the  low  island  of  Trinidad,  also  a  British 
possession.  This  island  is  especially  noted  for  its  extensive  pitch  lake, 
from  which  asphaltum  is  obtained  for  use  in  making  asphalt  pavements. 
The  asphaltum  oozes  slowly  from  the  ground,  and,  as  it  is  dug  out,  more 
oozes  forth,  as  if  there  were  an  inexhaustible  supply  beneath  the  surface. 

West  of  Chile,  and  belonging  to  that  country,  is  the  island  of  Juan 
Fernandez.  This  is  the  island  where  Selkirk  was  wrecked,  and  by  some 
is  thought  to  be  the  island  home  of  Robinson  Crusoe.  It  seems  quite  cer- 
tain, however,  that  Defoe  described  Tobago,  just  north  of  Trinidad. 

Eeview  Questions. —  (1)  State  some  resemblances  between  South  America 
and  North  America.  (2)  Describe  the  highland  regions.  (3)  The  lowlands. 
(4)  In  what  respects  do  North  and  South  America  differ  ?  (5)  Tell  about  the 
differences  in  temperature  in  different  parts  of  South  America.  (6)  Explain  the 
regions  of  heavy  rainfall.  (7)  Where  are  the  arid  belts?  Give  the  reasons. 
(8)  What  about  the  rainfall  in  the  south  ?  (9)  Why  does  the  rainfall  vary  with 
the  season  in  the  tropical  belt?  (10)  What  differences  in  the  plant  life  are  found 
ia  South  America?    Why?    (11)   Tell  about  the  animals  of  the  tropical  forest. 


812  SOUTH   AMEBIC  A 

(12)  Of  the  plains  and  mountains.  (13)  Describe  the  Indian  life  in  the  forest. 
(14)  What  can  you  tell  about  the  Incas  ?  (15)  State  the  main  facts  in  the  history 
of  South  America  since  the  whites  came.  (16)  Describe  the  principal  physio- 
graphic features  of  Brazil.  (17)  What  are  the  variations  in  climate?  (18)  Tell 
about  the  influence  of  rainfall  upon  the  vegetation  and  the  rivers.  (19)  Describe 
the  tropical  forest  of  the  Amazon.  (20)  What  valuable  products  are  found? 
(21)  What  can  you  tell  about  mandioca?  (22)  Tell  about  coffee  raising. 
(23)  What  other  products  come  from  Brazil?  (24)  I^J^ame  and  locate  the  prin- 
cipal cities ;  what  can  you  say  about  each  ?  (25)  Describe  the  physiography  of 
Argentina.  (26)  What  influence  have  the  physiography  and  climate  had  upon 
development?  (27)  How  does  ranching  in  Argentina  differ  from  that  of  the 
United  States?  Why?  (28)  What  are  the  principal  farm  products ?  (29)  Tell 
about  manufacturing.  (30)  About  commerce.  (31)  How  does  Argentina  differ 
from  many  other  South  American  countries  ?  (32)  Compare  Buenos  Aires  with 
New  York.  (33)  Locate  the  other  cities  named.  (34)  What  are  the  industries 
of  Uruguay?  (35)  Name  the  capital.  (36)  Compare  Uruguay  with  Argentina. 
(37)  What  about  the  climate  and  products  of  Paraguay?  (38)  Name  the  three 
Gruianas.  (39)  What  are  the  conditions  and  products  ?  (40)  Describe  the  physi- 
ography of  Venezuela.  (41)  What  are  the  principal  industries  ?  (42)  What  can 
you  tell  about  Caracas  ?  (43)  Name  the  Andean  countries.  (44)  Tell  about  the 
climate,  its  variations,  and  influence  on  the  farm  products.  (45)  What  about 
the  minerals?  (46)  What  was  the  influence  of  the  Spaniards?  (47)  Give  rea- 
sons for  the  locations  of  the  capitals.  (48)  Of  what  importance  is  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama?  (49)  Describe  the  physiography  and  industries  of  Colombia.  (50)  What 
about  the  capital?  (51)  Tell  about  the  effect  of  climate  on  the  industries  in  Ecua- 
dor. (52)  Name  the  products.  (53)  Why  is  there  little  mining  and  manufactur- 
ing? (54)  Locate  the  principal  cities.  (55)  Tell  about  the  physiography  and 
climate  of  Peru.  (56)  About  the  minerals  and  agricultural  products.  (57)  Locate 
and  tell  about  the  principal  cities.  (58)  What  about  the  large  lake  in  Bolivia? 
(59)  Tell  about  the  mining.  (60)  The  other  industries,  (61)  The  transporta- 
tion of  goods.  (62)  Describe  the  physiography  of  Chile.  (63)  The  climate. 
(64)  Name  the  mineral  products.  (65)  What  other  industries  are  developed? 
(66)  Why  is  Chile  so  progressive  ?  (67)  Locate  the  largest  cities.  (68)  Locate 
the  island  groups  mentioned. 

Review  and  Comparison  with  North  America.  —  (1)  Which  of  the  two 
Americas  has  the  advantage  in  regard  to  latitude?  Show  how.  (2)  Tell  about 
the  effects  of  the  trade  winds  in  each  continent  (Fig.  251).  (3)  Of  the  pre- 
vailing westerlies  (Figs.  250  and  252).  (4)  Locate  the  arid  sections  in  each 
continent,  and  give  the  reasons  for  the  lack  of  rain  (Figs,  249-252).  (5)  Point 
out  the  rainiest  section  in  each,  and  state  the  causes.  (6)  Which  of  the  two  conti- 
nents has  the  better  position  for  world  commerce  ?  Why  ?  (7)  Into  what  ocean 
do  the  principal  rivers  of  South  America  flow?  Of  North  America?  (8)  What 
can  you  say  about  the  regularity  of  the  coast  of  the  two  grand  divisions?  Which 
has  the  advantage  in  this  respect  ?  How  ?  (9)  Locate  the  principal  coast  cities  of 
South  America.  Of  North  America.  Give  the  main  advantages  of  the  location 
in  each  case.  (10)  What  about  the  number  of  lakes  in  each  continent  and  their 
value  for  commerce?  (11)  What  interior  cities  in  each  continent  can  you  locate? 
(12)  Compare  both  Brazil  and  Argentina  with  the  United  States  in  area ;  in  popu- 
lation. (13)  Compare  Chile  with  Texas  in  these  two  respects.  (14)  What  im- 
portant farm  products  are  common  to  South  America  and  the  United  States? 
1^15)    Name  some  products  that  are  exteiisively  raised  in  one  and  not  in  the  other. 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 


818 


(16)  Which  parts  of  each  continent  are  especially  noted  for  cotton?  Coffee? 
Wheat?  Cattle  and  sheep?  Copper?  Precious  metals ?  (17)  What  is  the  pre- 
vailing kind  of  government  in  North  and  in  South  America  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Give  several  reasons  why  South  America  has  been  much 
less  rapidly  settled  than  North  America.  (2)  What  parts  of  North  America  have 
been  rising  and  on  that  account  possess  few  good  natural  harbors  ?  (3)  How  does 
the  Spaniards'  treatment  of  the  Incas  compare  with  their  treatment  of  the  North 
American  Indians?  (4)  Find  out  some  of  the  ways  in  which  coffee  is  often  adul- 
terated. (5)  Make  a  sand  model  of  South  America ;  a  drawing.  (6)  If  you  were 
expecting  to  emigrate  there,  where  would  you  prefer  to  settle  ?  Why?  (7)  What 
products  of  South  America  are  you  probably  seeing  and  using  from  week  to  week  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


Fig.  V. 

The  St.  Gothard  Railway  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps.  Notice  the  three  levels.  At  this 
point  the  railway  passes  through  two  spiral  tunnels  in  order  to  climb  the  steep  slope  of 
the  mountain  valley  before  finally  plunging  into  the  main  St.  Gothard  tunnel. 


914 


Fi(i.  304. 

Relief  Map  of  Europe. 

315 


COALFIELDS  (« 

OF  0 

EUROPE.  * 


Fig.  305. 
Coal  map  of  Europe. 


Fig.  306. 
Tht  ice  sheet  of  Europ«c 


Paet  TV 

EUROPE 


oJ<«< 


I.    PHYSIOGRAPHY,   CLIMATE,   AND   PEOPLE 

The  continent  of  Europe  was  named  when  only  the  southern  part 
of  it  was  known  ;  that  is,  the  portion  that  is  separated  from  Africa 
and  Asia  by  water.  On  Figure  304  find  what  these  bodies  of  water 
are  called.  As  exploration  extended,  it  was  found  that  Europe  was 
really  continuous  with  Asia,  being  in  fact  a  great  peninsula  extend- 
ing westward.  Europe  and  Asia  together  actually  form  a  single 
continent  called  Eurasia  ;  but  since  Europe  has  been  long  consid- 
ered a  separate  continent,  and  has  figured  so  prominently  as  the 
home  of  the  civilized  races,  it  seems  best  to  treat  it  separately. 

On  the  map  (Fig.  353)  trace  the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
Make  an  outline  map,  inserting  the  boundaries  and  names  of  the  European 
countries.  Add  the  names  of  the  seas  and  the  larger  islands.  What  countries 
are  partly  or  wholly  on  peninsulas  ?  Add  to  the  map  the  large  rivers  with 
their  names.  Where  are  the  chief  divides  ?  Mark  with  heavy  lines  the 
location  of  the  principal  mountains  (Fig.  304).  Write  their  names  on  the 
map.  From  what  has  previously  been  learned,  what  can  you  tell  about 
the  people  of  Europe  ?  About  the  climate  ?  What  does  the  peculiar  con- 
dition of  the  Caspian  Sea  tell  about  the  climate  in  that  section  ? 

Physiography 

Highlands  and  Lowlands.  —  As  in  the  case  of  North  America,  the 
development  of  the  continent  of  Europe  has  required  millions  of 
years.  Far  back  in  time  mountains  appeared  above  the  sea  in  the 
northwestern  portion  of  the  continent.  Although  greatly  worn  by 
the  weathering  of  the  ages,  and  much  reduced  in  elevation,  these 
mountains  may  still  be  seen  in  Finland,  Scandinavia  (the  peninsula 
-occupied  by  Norway  and  Sweden),  and  Scotland  (Figs.  315  and  355), 

817 


818 


SUBOPS 


as  well  as  in  Germany  and  Belgium.  They  resemble  the  mountains 
of  New  England  and  eastern  Canada,  that  have  likewise  been  greatly 
worn  by  weathering. 

Other  mountain  ranges  were  later  formed  in  southern  Europe  ; 
but,  like  those  of  western  America,  they  are  young  and  their  recent 
growth  has  been  vigorous.  Therefore  the  Pyrenees  (Fig.  336), 
Alps  (Fig.  379),  and  Caucasus  (Fig.  307)  are  still  of  great  height. 
Find  each  on  Figure  304.  The  mountains  of  North  and  South 
America  form  continuous  chains,  with  the  highest  ranges  in  the 
west,  extending  north  and  south.     But  in  Europe  the  loftiest  moun- 


FiG.  307. 


A  view  over  the  snow-capped  peaks  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains.    A  sea  of  fog 

fills  the  valley.  , 


tains  are  in  the  south,  extending  in  various  directions,  though  mainly 
east  and  west.  How  does  this  condition  promise  a  different  effect 
on  the  climate?  It  is  to  the  fact  that  the  mountains  are  not  con- 
tinuous, and  that  they  consist  of  chains  extending  in  various  direc- 
tions, that  Europe  owes  much  of  its  extremely  irregular  outline. 

Besides  the  mountains  mentioned,  there  is  a  long,  low  chain,  known 
as  the  Urals,  which  extends  north  and  south  on  the  eastern  side,  and  for  a 
part  of  the  distance  forms  the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia.  Other 
scattered  highlands  are  shown  on  Figure  304.  Where  mainly  are  they 
situated  ? 

Between  the  low  mountains  of  the  north  and  east  and  the  higher 
ranges  of  the  south  there  is  a  very  extensive  lowland  (Fig.  304). 


PHTSIOGRAPHT 


319 


A  part  of  this  has  been  submerged  by  the  sinking  of  the  land,  thus 
forming  the  shallow  Baltic  Sea.  Beginning  in  the  west  with  south- 
ern England,  and  passing  through  Belgium  and  Holland,  or  the 
"  Low  Countries,"  this  plain  broadens  as  it  extends  eastward  across 


Fig.  308. 
Looking  across  the  level  plain  of  north  Germany.    Peat  is  dug  on  this  plain  near  the  river. 

Germany  (Fig.  308),  until  it  includes  almost  all  of  Russia  (Fig.  304). 
Estimate  its  length  east  and  west.  About  two  thirds  of  Europe  is 
included  in  this  plain. 

Coal  Beds.  —  While  these  mountains  and  plains  were  forming, 
coal  beds  were  also  accumulating,  as  was  the  case  in  America 
(p.  2)  during  the  Coal  Period. 

Figure  305  shows  the  parts  of  Europe  in  which  coal  beds  occur. 
In  what  countries  are  they  ?  Most  of  the  coal  is  bituminous  or  soft 
coal,  though  there  is  some  anthracite.  In  a  number  of  sections 
lignite,  or  brown  coal,  is  mined;  and  peat  (Fig.  308)  is  also  dug  for 
fuel  in  western  Europe,  where  the  damp  climate  favors  its  formation. 

The  Great  Ice  Sheet.  —  At  the  same  period  that  eastern  North 
America  was  invaded  by  a  great  ice  sheet  from  the  north,  snow  accu- 
mulated on  the  highlands  of  northwestern  Europe  and,  changing  to 
ice,  spread  outward  in  all  directions.  Figure  306  shows  the  extent 
of  the  European  ice  sheet. 

The  Coast  Line.  —  The  irregularities  of  the  coast  line  of  northern 
Europe,  like  those  of  northeastern  North  America,  are  due  to  the 
sinking  of  the  land.  The  Baltic  Sea  and  its  gulfs  represent  old  land 
valleys;  and  the  hills  of  this  submerged  land  form  either  islands, 
peninsulas,  or  shallow  banks  where  food  fish  abound. 


320 


EUROPE 


It  is  well  proved  that,  before  the  Glacial  Period,  the  British  Isles  were 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  low  plains  where  the  North  Sea  and 
English  Channel  now  exist.  An  elevation  of  only  a  few  hundred  feet 
would  restore  this  condition  by  changing  the  bed  of  the  North  Sea  to  dry 
land.     This  would  then  extend  the  continent  westward  beyond  the  British 

Isles,  thus  destroying  the 
bays  and  harbors,  and  alter- 
ing the  entire  outline  of 
northwestern  Europe. 

In  southern  Europe 
the  rising  and  sinking  of 
small  areas  of  land — 
while  the  mountains  were 
forming — has  made  many 
peninsulas,  with  bays, 
gulfs,  islands,  and  seas  be- 
tween. The  Mediterra- 
nean itself  occupies  a 
basin,  thousands  of  feet 
in  depth,  formed  by  the 
sinking  of  this  part  of  the  earth's  crust.  Some  of  these  islands,  how- 
ever, are  partly  or  wholly  built  up  by  volcanic  action.  What  volcano 
is  on  the  island  of  Sicily  ?  (Fig.  375.) 


Fia.  309. 

A.  fjord  on  the  coast  of  Norway  —  a  mountain  valley 
into  which  the  sea  has  heen  admitted  by  sinking 
of  the  land.     (See  also  Fig.  356.) 


Climate 

Influence  of  Latitude.  —  Trace  the  50th  parallel  of  latitude  on  a 
globe  or  map  of  the  world.  Notice  that  while  the  49tli  parallel 
forms  the  northern  boundary  of  western  United  States,  it  passes 
entirely  south  of  England,  crosses  France  near  Paris,  and  extends 
through  southern  Germany  and  Russia.  From  this  it  is  evident  that 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  Europe  lies  farther  north  than  the  United 
States,  and  due  east  of  Canada.  St.  Petersburg  is  in  the  same 
latitude  as  northern  Labrador  ;  and  the  tips  of  the  peninsulas  of 
southern  Europe  reach  about  as  far  south  as  the  southern  boundary 
of  Virginia. 

In  the  far  north,  near  the  Arctic,  the  climate  is  bleak,  and  there 
are  barren,  frozen  tundras.  South  of  this  is  a  belt  of  fir,  spruce, 
and  pine,  like  that  which  stretches  east  and  west  across  central 
Canada.  But  contrary  to  what  might  be  expected  from  latitude 
alone,  the  climate  in  and  just  south  of  this  belt  of  evergreen  forest 


CLIMATE  821 

permits  the  growth  of  the  grains  and  fruits  that  flourish  in  southern 
Canada  and  northern  United  States.  In  southern  Europe,  in  the 
latitude  of  central  United  States,  such  semi-tropical  fruits  as  oranges, 
lemons,  olives,  and  figs  are  cultivated.  That  is  to  say,  the  products 
of  the  greater  part  of  Europe  are  such  as  grow  several  hundred 
miles  farther  south  in  eastern  North  America. 

That  these  products  are  raised  in  great  abundance  in  Europe  is 
indicated  by  the  number  of  people  there  ;  for,  although  the  conti- 
nent is  much  less  than  half  the  size  of  North  America,  it  supports 
four  times  as  many  inhabitants,  or  nearly  400,000,000.  Let  us  see 
the  explanation  of  these  remarkable  facts. 

Resemblance  to  Western  North  America.  —  In  several  respects  the 
climate  of  Europe  is  so  similar  to  that  of  western  North  America  that 
a  brief  review  will  be  useful.  Recall  the  facts  stated  on  pages  253,  272. 

The  prevailing  westerlies  are  felt  in  northern  Europe  as  in  the 
United  States.  Blowing  from  the  ocean,  and,  what  is  especially 
important,  from  across  the  warm  ocean  current  (p.  267),  they  dis- 
tribute an  enormous  amount  of  heat  over  the  land.  It  is  the  wester- 
lies from  these  warm  waters,  more  than  any  other  factor,  that  allow 
crops  to  be  raised  nearer  the  pole  in  Europe  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  globe.  If  these  conditions  were  not  present,  much  of  that 
densely  populated  continent  (Fig.  303)  would  be  barren  waste,  like 
Labrador. 

The  effect  of  the  ocean  winds  is  naturally  greatest  near  the  coast, 
as  in  western  North  America.  Therefore  England  has  a  mild,  rainy 
climate  ;  but  the  farther  eastward  one  goes,  the  less  is  the  influence 
of  the  ocean.  Thus  eastern  Russia  experiences  great  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  and  there  is  danger  of  serious  droughts.  Compare 
the  summer  and  winter  temperature  (Figs.  268  and  269)  and  the 
rainfall  (Fig.  310)  of  these  two  sections. 

Southern  Europe,  like  Lower  California,  is  not  affected  by  the 
westerlies  in  summer,  for  it  then  lies  within  the  belt  of  the  horse 
latitudes.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  southern  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Greece  receive  very  little  rain  in  summer.  Examine  Figure  310  to 
see  where  in  Europe  the  rainfall  is  light.  Find  some  places  where 
there  is  abundant  rain  on  mountain  slopes. 

Influence  of  Cyclonic  Storms.  —  Thus  far  we  have  seen  a  striking 
resemblance  in  the  climates  of  the  two  continents.  But  there  are 
also  notable  differences.  The  westerlies  are  less  regular  in  Europe 
than  in  western  North  America  because  of  frequent  interruption  by 


322 


XUBOPE 


the  cyclonic  storms,  which,  after  passing  over  eastern  North  America, 
often  cross  the  ocean  and  continue  across  Europe  (p.  258).  Why 
cannot  their  arrival  be  predicted  as  well  as  in  the  United  States  ? 

As  in  eastern  United  States  and  Canada,  the  cyclonic  storms  cause 
variable  winds  (Fig.  261).  For  example,  when  a  storm  center  is  west  of 
the  British  Isles  the  westerlies  are  interfered  with  and  the  winds  blow 
successively  from  all  points.     But  while  storm  winds  from  the  east  bring 


SCALE  OF  RAfNFALL 

IN  INCHES 
I 1  UNDER  10   INS. 

[■"■•.■■•■■■I  10-80      INS. 
^^m  20-40     INS. 


RAIKFALI. 

OF 
EURO  P E 


Fig.  310. 


rain  to  eastern  North  America,  the  same  kind  of  winds  cannot  bring  rain 
to  eastern  Europe,  because  there  is  no  great  ocean  near  at  hand  to  supply 
the  vapor.  On  account  of  the  absence  of  ocean  water,  therefore,  eastern 
Europe  has  little  rain,  as  eastern  America  would  have  if  there  were  land 
instead  of  water  to  the  east  of  it. 


Effect  of  Mountain  Ranges.  —  The  direction  in  which  the  high- 
lands extend  is  another  cause  of  great  difference  between  the  climates 
of  Europe  and  America.  In  America,  where  high  mountains  extend 
north  and  south  along  the  entire  western  margin  of  the  continent, 
the  warm,  damp  westerlies  are  soon  deprived  of  their  moisture. 
This  leaves  a  vast  arid  and  semi-arid  area  in  the  interior. 


PEOPLE  323 

In  Europe,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  higher  ranges  extend 
nearly  east  and  west,  the  mountains  do  not  so  seriously  interfere  with 
the  movement  of  vapor  to  the  interior.  Consequently  the  west  winds 
surrender  their  moisture  only  very  gradually.  This  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  in  the  belt  of  westerlies,  from  western  Ireland  to  eastern 
Russia,  there  is  rainfall  enough  for  agriculture. 

The  east- west  direction  of  the  lofty  mountains  has  a  marked  influence 
on  the  climate  of  those  portions  of  Europe  that  lie  on  the  north  and  south 
sides.  Eising  like  great  walls,  the  mountains  prevent  south  winds  from 
bearing  northward  the  heat  of  the  Mediterranean  basin ;  and  they  also 
interfere  with  the  passage  of  the  chilling  winds  from  the  north.  We  know 
that  Florida,  much  farther  south  than  southern  Europe,  is  visited  by  cold 
waves  and  accompanying  frosts ;  but  mountain  barriers  prevent  such  winds 
in  portions  of  southern  Europe. 

Inland  Seas.  —  The  numerous  inland  seas  are  another  great  factor  in 
influencing  the  climate  of  parts  of  Europe.  Draw  a  sketch  map  of  Europe, 
locating  the  seas.  How  does  the  Mediterranean  compare  in  length  with 
Lake  Superior  ?  It  will  be  remembered  that  our  Great  Lakes  produce  a 
marked  influence  on  the  climate  of  the  neighboring  land,  moderating  the 
heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter.  It  is  this  influence,  added  to  that 
of  the  mountain  barrier,  that  gives  to  southern  Italy,  Greece,  France,  and 
Spain  such  an  equable  and  semi-tropical  climate.  How  must  these  seas 
influence  the  rainfall  ? 

People 

The  people  of  Europe  have  never  been  bound  closely  together 
as  one  great  nation  with  common  interests.  One  of  the  important 
reasons  for  this  is  the  fact  that  so  many  parts  of  the  continent  are 
quite  detached  from  all  others.  Spain,  for  example,  is  not  only  a 
peninsula,  but  it  is  separated  from  France  by  a  high  range  of  moun- 
tains. The  British  Isles  are  entirely  cut  off  by  water  ;  Scandinavia 
nearly  so;  and  Italy  itself  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  by  water  on  all  other  sides.  It  is  natural  that  people 
living  in  such  isolated  positions  should  not  feel  a  common  interest 
with  those  who  are  separated  from  them.  Thus  have  arisen  many 
different  customs,  beliefs,  and  languages. 

In  consequence  of  this  isolation  and  lack  of  common  interests 
there  are  many  more  nations  in  Europe  than  in  North  America. 
Count  them  (Fig.  353).  There  have  been  many  jealousies  and 
disputes  among  them  which  have  been  settled  by  war,  and  their 
boundariei  have  been  subjected  to  numerous  changes,  as  one  nation 
it— A« 


324  EUROPE 

or  another  has  seized  territory  during  war.  Notice  also  how 
irregular  are  some  of  the  boundary  lines.  Those  of  Germany,  for 
example,  have  been  determined  only  after  the  loss  of  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  human  lives. 

Influence  of  the  Discovery  of  America.  —  Of  the  many  great 
achievements  of  Europeans  within  modern  times,  probably  the 
greatest  was  the  discovery  of  America.  In  thinking  of  this  event 
we  are  apt  to  consider  only  the  mighty  influence  Europe  has  had 
on  America.  But  the  New  World  has  also  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  upon  Europe.  The  encouragement  given  to  navigation 
by  this  discovery  led  Europeans  to  explore  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Their  knowledge  was  thereby  greatly  increased  and  their 
wealth  as  well.  Also,  the  crowded  condition  of  Europe  has  been 
much  relieved;  for  many  nations  have  poured  forth  emigrants,  not 
only  to  North  and  South  America,  but  also  to  Australia  and  Africa, 
and,  more  recently,  even  to  Asia. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Give  reasons  for  and  against  treating  Europe  as 
a  separate  continent.  (2)  Tell  about  the  highlands.  (3)  The  lowlands.  (4)  The 
coal  beds.  (5)  The  Ice  Age.  (6)  Locate  the  boundary  of  the  ice  sheet  (Fig.  306) 
on  Figure  353.  (7)  Tell  about  the  coast  line  in  northern  Europe.  (8)  In  southern 
Europe.  (9)  Of  what  advantage  is  the  irregularity  of  the  European  coast? 
(10)  Give  the  latitude  of  northern  and  of  southern  Europe.  (11)  How  about 
its  vegetation  ?  (12)  Its  population  ?  (13)  Remembering  its  latitude,  explain 
the  mild  climate  of  Europe.  (14)  How  are  its  regular  westerlies  interfered  with  ? 
(15)  How  is  the  east  and  west  direction  of  its  mountain  ranges  of  great  impor- 
tance? (16)  What  is  the  inflaence  of  its  inland  seas  ?  (17)  Give  some  reasons 
why  Europe  is  divided  into  so  many  nations.  (18)  How  has  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World  proved  of  great  benefit  to  Europe  ?  (19)  In  what  respect  is  Europe 
the  Fatherland  of  other  countries  ? 

Correlation  with  North  America.  —  (1)  Compare  Europe  with  Nortlj 
America  in  regard  to  highlands.  (2)  To  lowlands.  (3)  Distribution  of  coal 
beds.i  (4)  Extent  of  ice  covering.  (5)  Irregularity  of  coast  lines.  (6)  Latitude. 
(7)  Vegetation  (see  also  pp.  20-21).  (8)  Population.  (9)  In  what  respects  are 
the  two  continents  alike  in  climate?  (10)  In  what  respects  unlike?  (11)  Com- 
pare the  number  of  degrees  of  longitude  in  Europe  with  the  number  in  North 
America.  (12)  Are  the  cyclonic  storms  as  much  needed  in  Europe  as  in  America  ? 
Why  ?  (13)  Why  should  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  Europe  be  on  the 
western  side,  while  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  North  America  is  on  the 
eastern  side  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  What  results  might  follow  if  the  mountains  of  Europe 
extended  north  and  south  near  the  western  coast  ?  (2)  What  disadvantages  do 
some  of  the  European  countries  suffer  in  consequence  of  the  east  and  west  direc- 
tion of  the  mountains  on  their  southern  boundaries  ?     (3)  In  what  section  would 

1  Some  of  these  comparisons  will  be  made  easier  by  examining  the  figures  on 
pages  254-266. 


SUGGESTIONS 


325 


you  expect  to  find  the  most  wild  animals?  (Fig.  303.)  (4)  Give  reasons  why 
some  European  countries,  such  as  Germany,  take  much  better  care  of  their  forests 
than  Americans  do.  (5)  Can  you  tell  about  any  of  the  great  wars  and  great  gen- 
erals of  Germany,  England,  or  France  ?  (6)  Can  you  tell  of  any  of  the  changes 
in  boundary  lines ;  for  example,  in  Poland,  or  between  France  and  Germany  ? 


Fig.  W. 
Mirror  Lake,  Tosemite  Valley,  California. 


II.     THE  BRITISH  ISLES 

Position,  Size,  and  Importance.  —  London  is  fully  seven  hundred 
miles  farther  north  than  New  York  City,  and  the  British  Isles  are 
in  the  same  latitude  as  Labrador.  England  itself  is  smaller  than 
New  England;  and  the  British  Isles,  including  England,  Wales, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  several  hundred  small  islands,  are  not  much 
larger  than  the  state  of  Colorado. 

Yet  in  spite  of  their  northern  position  and  small  area,  the  largest 
city  in  the  world  is  located  in  the  British  Isles.  More  than  that. 
Great  Britain  has  more  manufacturing,  with  the  exception  of  the 
United  States,  more  foreign  trade,  a  greater  number  of  vessels  upon 
the  sea,  and  more  colonies  (Fig.  312)  than  any  other  nation  in  exist- 
ence (Fig.  354).  There  are  of  course  reasons  for  these  remarkable 
facts,  and  we  shall  next  look  for  them. 

Inhabitants.  —  The  British  people  doubtless  offer  one  important 
explanation  of  the  above  facts.     Being  so  near  the  mainland  the 


Fia.  311, 
Aacient  cottage  mear  the  Lakes  of  Eillamej  in  Ireland. 


i(f 


BRITISH  ISLES 

Scale  of  Miles 
9  ,    .    ,       60  ,    .    ,    ,  100 

Cities  with  oTer  1,000,000 LondOll 

citiM  with  200,000  to  i,ooo,ooa--Llverpool 

CltlM  with  100,000  to  200,000 Portsmoath 

SiMller  PUce* Plymouth     C.  Wrath 

CapltaU  of  Countries  ©       Other  Places  •, 


Unnalrd  Head 

K    O  \b    T    H 


ULniwcs  msii'g  eo.JM.yj 


^^^^^mgJtnd^^6' 


from      '  a ,     2°     Greenvyioh  0^     East 


Fig.  313. 
Map  Questions.  —  (1)  Walk  toward  the  British  Isles.  (2)  What  two  large  islands 
do  they  include  ?  (3)  What  waters  separate  these  two  ?  (4)  Name  the  three  divi- 
sions of  Great  Britain.  (5)  Find  the  Orkney,  Hebrides,  Shetland,  and  Channel 
Islands.  They  are  included  among  the  British  Isles.  (6)  What  sea  lies  east  of  Great 
Britain?  (7)  What  country  is  nearest  to  Great  Britain?  (Fig.  352.)  (8)  What 
waters  separate  the  two  ?  (9)  Make  a  sketch  map  of  the  British  Isles.  (10)  Com- 
pare the  coast  line  with  that  of  Spain  (Fig.  337).  With  that  of  Norway  (Fig.  352). 
Wliat  suggestion  do  you  get  from  this  comparison  ? 


THE   BBITIBH  IBLXB  827 

islands  have  been  invaded  by  many  hardy  people^  among  them  the 
Angles  and  Saxons,  from  whom  the  words  English  and  Anglo-Saxon 
have  been  derived.  The  Normans  also  entered  Britain,  and  still 
earlier  the  Romans  under  Julius  Ctesar. 

Although  formerly  divided  into  different  nations,  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland  are  now  united  to  form  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  sec- 
tions are  noted  for  their  energy,  intelligence,  and  high  ideals,  which 
in  no  small  measure  account  for  their  success  as  a  nation. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  The  southwesterly  winds  from  over 
the  warm  ocean  (p.  321)  also  partly  account  for  the  greatness  of  the 
British  Empire.  Two  days  out  of  three  these  winds  blow  across 
the  British  Isles;  and,  since  they  have  traversed  a  vast  expanse  of 
warm  water,  they  greatly  temper  the  climate.  Indeed,  the  winter 
season  is  milder  than  that  in  northern  United  States,  and  the  summer 
is  cooler  (Figs.  268  and  269). 

The  prevailing  westerlies,  carrying  an  abundance  of  moisture 
(p.  321),  so  distribute  it  over  the  islands  that  no  section  suffers 
from  drought.  Yet  the  western  portions  receive  more  rain  than 
the  eastern,  because  the  ocean  winds  visit  them  first  (Fig.  314). 

The  highlands  also  influence  the  rainfall.  A  highland  rim 
extends  around  Ireland  (Fig.  313),  giving  to  the  surface  of  that 
island  the  form  of  a  shallow  plate.  How  does  that  influence  the 
rainfall?  (Fig.  314.)  Highlands  are  also  found  in  Wales,  western 
England,  and  most  of  Scotland  (Fig.  313). 

As  already  stated  (p.  317)  the  mountains  of  Great  Britain,  like 
those  of  New  England,  are  so  old  that  they  are  worn  very  low. 
While  this  upland  is  rarely  more  than  one  or  two  thousand  feet 
above  sea  level,  there  are  occasional  peaks  of  hard  rock  that  rise  to 
a  greater  height.  For  example,  the  granite  peak  of  Ben  Nevis  in 
Scotland,  the  highest  point  in  the  British  Isles,  is  forty-three  hun- 
dred feet  in  elevation.  The  Scottish  Highlands  (Fig.  315)  are  so 
rugged  and  barren  that  few  people  are  able  to  live  there. 

Where  the  rocks  are  soft  and  easily  worn  away  by  water  there 
are  lower  and  more  level  tracts,  or  plains.  Point  out  the  broadest 
plains  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  England  (Fig.  313). 

The  coast  line  is  very  irregular,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  map. 
(Fig.  313.)  How  does  the  coast  compare  with  that  of  New  Eng- 
land ?  You  have  already  learned  that  this  irregularity  is  due  to 
sinking  of  the  land;  and  that  the  many  islands  are  the  crests  of 


828 


mrEOPM 


former  hills,  while  the  bays  and  harbors  are  submerged  valleys. 
Since  the  mountainous  western  portion  had  more  deep  valleys  for  the 
sea  to  enter  than  the  level  plains  of  the  east,  there  are  more  good 
harbors  on  the  west  coast  than  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  islands. 
On  both  sides,  however,  the  mouths  of  the  larger  rivers  usually  make 
good  ports.     Why  ? 

Agriculture.  —  In  connection  with  agriculture,  much  live  stock  is 
raised.  In  fact,  grazing  has  of  late  so  increased  in  importance  that 
there  is  now  twice  as  much  land  in  pasture  as  in  crops,  and  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  are  noted  for 
their  great  number  of 
fine  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses.  The  impor- 
tance of  grazing  is 
partly  explained  by 
the  fact  that  much  of 
the  surface,  like  that 
of  New  England,  is 
too  rocky  or  moun- 
tainous to  be  culti- 
vated (Fig.  315). 
Besides  this,  some  of 
the  plains  in  eastern 
England,  although  too 
sterile  for  farming, 
make  excellent  pas- 
ture land.  Two  other 
facts  favorable  to 
stock  raising  are  the 
mild  winters  and  the 
damp  atmosphere, 
which  encourage  the 
growth  of  grass.  In 
addition  to  these  causes,  the  cheapness  with  which  grain  is  raised  in 
other  countries,  like  the  United  States,  and  transported  to  the  British 
Isles  on  the  larger  steamships,  has  made  it  less  necessary  for  the 
British  to  raise  grain. 

Several  of  the  smaller  islands  s,lso  are  celebrated  for  their  live 
stock.  For  instance,  the  Shetlands  are  famous  for  Shetland  ponies; 
and  on  the  three  Channel  Islands,  —  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Alderney, 


Fig.  314. 
Rainfall  map  of  the  British  Isles. 


THE   BRITISH   ISLES 


329 


—  near  the  French  coast,  three  breeds  of  cattle  have  been  developed 
which  are  well  known  in  the  United  States. 

The  cool  summer  climate,  which  is  of  advantage  in  some  respects, 
is  unfavorable  to  many  kinds  of  farming;  for  example,  it  prevents 
the  production  of  corn,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  grapes,  which  require 
warm  summers.  More  hardy  products,  however,  as  oats,  barley,  and 
wheat,  are  extensively  cultivated.  Turnips,  potatoes,  beans,  and 
peas  are  other  important  crops  ;  also  hops,  which,  together  with 
barley,  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer.  Owing  to  the  many 
towns  and  cities,  truck  farming  is  of  importance. 

The  demand  for  farm  land  has  been  so  great  that  large  areas  of  swamp 
have  been  reclaimed  by  careful  drainage,  and  these  now  make  the  most 
fertile  farms.  But  in  spite  of  the  care  that  has  been  given  to  cultivating 
the  soil  and  to  raising  live  stock,  far  less  food  is  produced  than  is  needed 
by  the  inhabitants.  Such  vast  multitudes  are  engaged  in  other  occupa- 
tions that  if  they  were  deprived  of  food  from  abroad,  they  would,  it  is 


Fig.  315. 
Pasture  land  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 

said,  begin  to  suffer  from  famine  within  a  month.  How  different  that  is 
from  our  own  country,  of  which  the  area  is  so  large,  and  climate  so  varied, 
that  it  not  only  supplies  the  food  we  need,  but  produces  enormous  quanti- 
ties to  be  sent  abroad. 

Fishing.  —  Since  the  early  inhabitants  had  to  cross  the  sea  in  order  to 
reach  these  islands,  and  since  most  of  their  descendants  have  lived  either 


380 


EUBOPE 


on  or  near  the  coast,  it  is  natural  that,  as  a  people,  they  should  become 
accustomed  to  a  seafaring  life.  This  sort  of  life  has  also  been  encouraged 
by  the  fact  that  food  fish  abound  on  the  shallow  banks  of  the  North  Sea 
and  of  the  ocean  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  islands.  More  than  one 
hundred  thousand  men  and  twenty-five  thousand  boats  from  the  British 
Isles  are  employed  in  the  fishing  industry.     Among  the  fish  caught  are 


Fig.  316. 
A  cottage  in  southwestern  England. 

cod,  haddock,  and  herring,  as  oif  the  coast  of  New  England  and  New- 
foundland. Another  important  kind  is  a  flat-fish,  the  sole,  which  resem- 
bles the  flounder  of  the  New  England  coast.  Salmon  enter  the  rivers  of 
northern  Great  Britain,  and  oysters  are  found  along  the  southern  coast. 

Many  fishing  hamlets  are  scattered  along  the  shore ;  but  the  fishing 
industry  here,  as  in  New  England,  is  becoming  more  and  more  centralized 
in  the  large  towns,  which  possess  the  capital  for  large  vessels  and  expen- 
sive fishing  outfits.  The  chief  centers  of  the  trade,  like  Boston  and 
Gloucester  in  Massachusetts,  are  London,  Hull,  and  Grimsby  (Fig.  322), 
in  England,  and  Aberdeen  in  Scotland. 

Mining.  — One  of  the  resources  of  the  British  Isles  which  early 
attracted  people  from  southern  Europe  was  the  tin  in  southwestern 
England.  This  metal  is  not  mined  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  but 
has  always  been  in  great  demand ;  and  even  before  the  time  of  Ceesar, 
ships  from  the  Mediterranean  came  to  England  to  obtain  tin  for  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  bronze.  Small  quantities  of  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
and  even  gold  and  silver  ores  have  also  been  discovered  in  the  British 
Isles,  but  at  present  there  is  almost  no  mining  of  these  metals. 


THE   BRITISH   ISLES 


831 


On  the  other  hand,  the  abundance  of  two  other  minerals,  coal  and 
iron  ore,  reminds  us  of  our  own  country.  This  one  small  island 
of  Great  Britain  produces  almost  as  much  coal  as  all  of  our  states 
together;  and  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  are  the  lead- 
ing coal-producing  countries  of  the  world.  Figure  317  shows  the 
sections  of  Great  Britain  in  which  coal  is  found.  While  most  of  the 
coal  is  bituminous,  that  in  South  Wales *is  mainly  anthracite.  Large 
numbers  of  miners  in  the  United  States  are  Welshmen  who  have  come 
from  that  section. 

Parts  of  Great  Britain  possess  the  same  advantage  as  Birming- 
ham, Alabama,  the  name  of  which  is  derived  from  the  close  resem- 
blance of  conditions  about 
it  to  those  about  Birming- 
ham, England.  None  of 
the  British  iron  ore  is  far 
from  coal;  and  in  places 
the  same  shaft  is  used  to 
bring  both  coal  and  iron  to 
the  surface.  Limestone  is 
also  abundant  and  near  at 
hand.  What  suggestions 
do  these  facts  give  con- 
cerning the  development  of 
manufactures  and  the  loca- 
tion of  large  cities? 

Besides  these  minerals, 
various  building  stones  are 
extensively  quarried,  as  gran- 
ite in  Scotland,  and  slate  in 
northern  Wales.  Salt  is  also 
found ;  and  there  is  clay  of 
such  excellent  quality  for 
earthenware  that  several 
towns  have  become  noted  for 
their  potteries,  as  Trenton 
and  Cincinnati  have  in  the 
United  States.  The  extent 
of  the  mining  industry  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  there  more  than  half  a  million  persons  are  employed  underground. 

Reasons  for  Development  of  Manufacturing.  —  Considering  the 
abundance  of  coal  and  iron  ore  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  wool  from 


Fia.  317. 

A  map  showing  the  coal  fields  of  the  British  Isles. 
Why  are  so  many  of  the  large  cities  on  or  near  the 
coal  fields  ? 


332 


EUROPE 


the  millions  of  sheep  on  the  other,  it  is  clear  that  Great  Britain  is 
able  to  manufacture  extensively.  Even  in  very  early  times  the 
English  were  engaged  in  the  weaving  of  woolen  cloth.  Later, 
owing  to  numerous  wars  and  to  the  oppression  from  rulers  on  the 
continent,  England  became  a  refuge  for  oppressed  industrial  people 
from  the  mainland,  so  that  such  manufacturing  rapidly  increased. 

As  in  New  England,  the  hilly  sections  have  abundant  water 
power  due  to  the  former  glacier,  and  this  also  favored  manufacturing. 
Later,  when  steam  was  employed,  the  abundant  stores  of  coal  were  of 


Fig.  318. 
A  castle  in  Wales,  situated  on  one  of  the  hills  of  hard  rock. 


great  importance.  The  use  of  steam  has  led  to  the  building  of  many 
factories,  and  to  the  growth  of  manufacturing  centers.  Therefore, 
the  making  of  cloth  on  hand  looms  at  the  homes  of  the  weavers  has 
been  generally  abandoned. 

The  peculiar  energy  and  inventive  genius  of  the  British,  which  kept 
their  machinery  in  advance  of  that  used  by  other  nations,  must  also  be 
considered.  For  example,  it  was  the  Scotchman,  James  Watt,  who 
invented  the  modern  steam  engine ;  and  it  was  George  Stephenson  who 
invented  the  first  locomotive.     The  very  smallness   of  the  country  is 


THX   BRITISH   ISLES  S88 

another  advantage ;  for  no  matter  wiiere  a  factory  may  be  located,  it  is 
near  the  coal  fields  and  within  a  few  miles  of  a  shipping  point. 

Woolen  and  Cotton  Manufactures.  —  In  the  mountainous  section 
of  northern  England,  near  both  coal  and  wool,  are  hundreds  of  fac- 
tories engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen  cloth.  The  principal 
center  of  this  trade  is  Leeds,  which  has  the  added  advantage  of 
water  power.  On  the  western  side  of  this  hilly  region  is  Brad- 
ford, noted  for  its  broadcloth  and  worsted  goods  ;  and  neighboring 
cities  manufacture  woolen  yarn,  hosiery,  carpets,  and  blankets.  The 
woolen  industry  extends  northward  into  Scotland  and  southward  to 
Leicester,  where  the  surrounding  plains  produce  a  breed  of  sheep 
that  yields  a  wool  for  worsted  yarn. 

From  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  wool  it  was  easy  to  move  to 
cotton  manufacturing;  and  on  the  western  side  of  the  northern 
mountains  we  find  a  great  cotton-manufacturing  industry.  Damp- 
ness is  one  of  the  points  in  favor  of  that  section,  for  in  a  dry  air 
cotton  is  in  danger  of  becoming  too  brittle  to  spin  and  weave  easily. 
Another  reason  why  this  work  is  best  developed  on  the  west  side  of 
the  island  is  the  fact  that  it  is  nearer  to  the  United  States,  from  which 
so  much  of  the  raw  cotton  comes. 

The  center  of  the  cotton  manufacturing  is  Manchester.  What 
cities  do  you  find  situated  near  by  ?  This  portion  of  Great  Britain, 
including  southern  Scotland  and  the  two  sides  of  the  mountain  range 
of  northern  England,  is  the  seat  of  the  greatest  textile  industry  in 
the  world.  Can  you  name  cities  of  New  England  which  are  likewise 
engaged  in  cotton  and  woolen  manufacture  ? 

In  spite  of  the  enormous  number  of  sheep  in  the  British  Isles,  the 
manufacturing  industry  has  so  far  outgrown  the  local  supply  of  wool  that 
millions  of  pounds  must  be  imported  every  year.  This  condition  resem- 
bles  that  of  New  England,  where  much  of  the  wool  is  brought  from 
Ohio,  and  more  western  states,  as  well  as  from  foreign  countries.  As 
to  cotton,  since  the  British  climate  will  not  permit  its  cultivation,  it  is 
necessary  to  import  about  two  billion  pounds  a  year  to  supply  the 
mills.  Although  much  cotton  is  now  obtained  from  Egypt,  India,  and 
other  parts  of  the  British  Empire,  our  Southern  States  still  supply  the 
greatest  quantity. 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing.  —  The  cities  in  Great  Britain  that 
are  most  noted  for  iron  and  steel  products  are  Birmingham  and 
Sheffield  in  England,  and  Glasgow  in  Scotland.  Birmingham 
manufactures  jewelry,  watches,  firearms,  bicycles,  steam  engines,  etc. 


334  EUROFS 

Sheffield  has  for  centuries  been  distinguished  for  cutlery,  the 
existence  of  grindstone  quarries  in  the  neighborhood  being  a  partial 
reason  for  this  particular  industry.  Why?  It  also  manufactures 
steel  rails  and  armor  plates  for  warships.  Glasgow  is  a  center  for 
shipbuilding  and  for  the  manufacture  of  locomotives  and  machinery 
of  various  kinds. 

In  cities  round  about  these  places  are  similar  works ;  and  as  in  New 
England,  many  of  those  occupied  with  the  textile  industry  also  produce 
textile  machinery  and  other  iron  and  steel  goods.  The  island  is  so  small 
that  coal  and  iron  are  cheaply  shipped  to  various  points ;  and  on  this 
account,  manufacturing,  though  best  developed  near  the  coal  fields,  is  not 
confined  to  these  districts. 

Thus  we  see  that  here,  as  in  the  United  States,  coal  makes  possi- 
ble an  enormous  industrial  development.  But  in  spite  of  the  forest 
of  chimneys  in  England  and  southern  Scotland,  the  output  of  coal  is 


Fig.  319. 

The  Clyde,  at  Glasgow.    Fifty  years  ago  the  river  could  be  forded  at  this  place,  but  it  has 
been  deepened  by  dredging  so  that  the  largest  vessels  now  enter. 

more  than  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands.  The  materials  to  be  manu- 
factured, however,  are  not  sufficient;  for  all  the  cotton,  much  of  the 
wool,  and  part  of  the  iron  ore  must  be  imported. 

These  three  industries,  connected  with  cotton,  wool,  and  iron, 
have  made  Great  Britain  one  of  the  great  workshops  of  the  world. 
The  most  important  is  cotton  manufacturing ;  iron  ranks  next,  and 
wool  is  third, 

Ireland.  —  Ireland  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  Great  Britain  in 
several  respects.     In  the  first  place,  it  is  mainly  a  country  of  farms 


THE   BRITISH   ISLES  336 

instead  of  manufactures.  The  mild  climate  and  damp  atmosphere 
insure  excellent  grass  throughout  the  year,  and  about  four  fifths  of 
the  farm  land  is  in  pasture.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  great  numbers 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  raised.  As  in  Great  Britain,  the  prin- 
cipal grain  is  oats;  but  barley,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  turnips  are 
also  raised. 

Again,  unlike  Great  Britain,  Ireland  is  very  barren  of  minerals. 
Building  stones,  such  as  granite,  marble,  and  sandstone,  are  found, 
but  there  is  extremely  little  coal  or  iron.  For  that  reason,  whatever 
manufacturing  has  been  developed  is  found  chiefly  on  the  eastern 
side,  where  coal  is  easily  obtained  from  England  or  Scotland.  At 
one  point  the  two  islands  are  only  thirteen  miles  apart. 

The  lack  of  coal  for  use  in  the  homes  is  partly  made  up  by  the  abun- 
dance of  "  turf  "  or  peat.  Owing  to  the  deposits  of  glacial  drift,  which 
have  obstructed  the  streams  (Fig.  320),  the  level  interior  is  so   poorly 


Fig.  320. 

The  famous  Lakes  of  Killaraey  in  the  hilly  part  of  southwestern  Ireland.    They  are  formed 
where  glacial  drift  has  obstructed  the  drainage. 

drained  that  marshes  or  bogs  occupy  about  one  twelfth  of  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  island.  The  water  in  these  bogs  protects  the  swamp  vegetation 
from  decay,  so  that  it  accumulates,  forming  a  sod,  which,  when  dug  up  and 
dried,  makes  a  fairly  good  fuel.  It  will  be  remembered  that  similar  de- 
posits, in  the  larger  swamps  of  the  Coal  Period,  caused  the  coal  beds  which 
are  now  of  so  much  value  (p.  4). 

While  manufacturing  is  little  developed,  there  is  one  kind  that 
flourishes  in  Ireland;  namely,  the  making  of  linen.     The  Irish  linens, 


336  EUROPE 

which  take  high  rank  in  our  country,  are  made  from  the  inner  bark 
of  the  flax  plant.  Flax  is  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  mainly  for  the  sake  of  the  seed,  from  which  linseed  oil  is  made. 
This  oil  is  used  in  mixing  paints  and  in  making  varnish.  In  Ire- 
land, however,  flax  is  raised  chiefly  for  its  fiber. 

The  damp  climate  of  Ireland  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  flax,  and  the 
cheap  labor  makes  possible  the  great  amount  of  care  required  in  preparing 
it  for  the  manufacture  of  linen.  The  stem  of  flax  is  tall  and  slender,  and 
a  field  of  it  presents  somewhat  the  same  appearance  as  a  field  of  oats. 
Instead  of  being  cut,  like  grain,  it  is  pulled  up  and  left  lying  upon  the 
ground  for  some  time,  exposed  to  the  dew  and  weather,  so  that  the  gummy 
substance,  which  holds  the  woody  matter  and  fiber  together,  may  decay. 
After  the  fiber  has  been  separated  from  the  woody  core  by  machinery,  it  is 
split  and  combed  out  with  a  steel  brush  and  thus  made  ready  for  spinning. 

Travelers  in  northern  Ireland  in  summer  see  field  after  field  covered 
with  flax,  which  is  used  chiefly  in  linen  factories  at  Belfast.  The  fiber  is 
made  into  thread  in  much  the  same  manner  as  cotton  or  wool,  and  this  is  then 
woven  into  napkins,  tablecloths,  etc.     Name  other  articles  made  of  linen. 

Ireland  forms  a  contrast  to  Great  Britain  in  regard  to  population. 
Not  only  is  it  far  less  densely  peopled,  but  the  number  of  inhabitants 
is  decreasing.  Partly  because  of  the  unfavorable  laws  imposed  by  England, 
the  Irish  have  long  been  discontented  with  their  lot ;  and  since  the  disastrous 
potato  famine  in  1847,  they  have  been  abandoning  the  country.  They  have 
sought  refuge  chiefly  in  America,  and  since  the  date  mentioned,  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  has  been  reduced  from  8,000,000  to  5,000,000. 

Location  of  Principal  Cities.  —  The  cities  most  distinguished  for 
manufacturing  have  already  been  mentioned;  namely,  Leeds,  Brad- 
ford, Manchester,  Sheffield,  Birmingham,  and  Glasgow. 
What  industries  are  developed  in  each  ? 

There  are  other  large  cities  along  the  coast;  for  so  much  manu- 
facturing calls  for  an  enormous  import  of  raw  materials  and  food, 
as  well  as  the  export  of  manufactured  goods.  These  cities  must, 
therefore,  be  the  gateways  to  and  from  the  island.  And  since  Great 
Britain  lies  rather  far  north,  between  Europe  and  the  New  World, 
these  shipping  points  must  be  located  on  the  eastern,  western,  and 
southern  sides,  at  those  points  where  the  best  harbors  exist,  and  not 
far  from  the  great  industrial  centers. 

First  among  the  coastal  cities  to  be  noted  is  London,  with 
Bristol  opposite  it  on  the  west.  Farther  north  is  Hull,  with 
Liverpool  on  the  opposite  side ;  and  in  southern  Scotland  is 
Edinburgh,  near  the  coast,  paired  with  Glasgow  on  the  west. 
On  the  south  side   the   two  most  important  ports  are  Southamp- 


THE    BRITISH    ISLES 


887 


TON  and  Portsmouth.  What  are  the  principal  cities  of  Ireland  ? 
Steamships,  railway  lines,  and  canals  connect  the  various  cities, 
carrying  immense  quantities  of  freight.  In  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  there  are  nearly  four  thousand  miles  of  canal  and  over 
twenty-one  thousand  miles  of  railway. 

London.  —  This  city,  the  largest  in  the  world,  is  situated  on  the 
Thames  River.  The  Thames,  like  many  other  British  rivers,  has  a 
wide,  deep  mouth,  owing  to  the  sinking  of  the  land,  and  London  is 
located  as  far  inland  as  high  tide  allows  vessels  to  go,  or  fifty  miles 
from  the  open  sea.  The  advantage  of  this  position  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  yet  has  direct  water  com- 
munication with  foreign  countries. 

As  in  all  great  cities,  one  of  the  principal  industries  is  manu- 
facturing, nearly  all  kinds  of  goods  being  made,  as  in  New  York, 


Fig.  321. 
Commerce  on  the  Thames  below  London  Bridge. 


Chicago,  and  Philadelphia.  But  New  York,  we  know,  owes  its  great- 
ness largely  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  gateway  to  a  vast  productive  in- 
terior, while  almost  any  point  in  England  may  be  reached  by  rail  from 
London  in  a  few  hours.  Nevertheless,  although  Great  Britain  is  small, 
its  population  is  nearly  one  half  as  great  as  that  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  port  of  London  is  the  point  of  entrance  for  much  of  its  food. 


Fig.  322. 

The  location  of  London  and  of  Liverpool 

?38 


THE    BRITISH    ISLES 


339 


In  fact,  this  is  the  greatest  shipping  point  in  the  world.  Its  rows  of 
piers  extend  twenty  miles  down  the  river,  and  its  railways  radiate  in  all 
directions  (Fig.  322).  However,  the  fact  that  London  lacks  coal  and  iron 
near  at  hand,  places  it  at  some  disadvantage  compared  with  Liverpool 
and  Glasgow. 

Besides  being  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire  (Fig.  312),  which 
is  the  name  applied  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  its  dependencies, 
London  is  the  center  for  the  publication  of  books  and  magazines, 
and  is  provided  with  noted  picture  galleries,  libraries,  museums,  and 


Fig.  323. 

Windsor  Castle. 


many  magnificent  buildings.  Its  wealth  and  trade  are  so  extensive 
that  it  has  been  the  money  center  of  the  world,  though  New  York, 
the  money  center  of  the  United  States,  now  rivals  it.  The  leading 
bank,  called  the  Bank  of  England,  is  the  agent  of  the  government 
in  many  of  its  business  transactions,  and  employs  about  a  thousand 
persons. 

London  being  a  very  old  city,  many  of  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
crooked.  Some  of  the  principal  streets  are  too  narrow  for  street  cars,  so 
that,  unlike  American  cities,  the  people  have  to  be  transported  mainly  by 
omnibuses.  One  of  the  largest  companies  rims  thirteen  hundred  busses, 
and  employs  five  thousand  men  and  fifteen  thousand  horses.  However, 
underground  railways  which  encircle  the  great  city,  running  under  houses 
and  streets,  carry  an  enormous  number  of  passengers. 


340 


EUROPE 


Near  London  are  many  places  of  interest.  Just  below  the  city,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  river,  is  the  Greenwich  observatory  (p.  42),  from  which 
meridians  of  longitude  are  numbered  and  time  is  regulated.  A  few  miles 
up  the  river  is  Windsor  Castle  (Fig.  323),  the  palace  of  the  sovereigns  of 
the  Empire.  Find  Cambridge  and  Oxford  (Fig.  322),  the  two  leading 
university  towns  of  Great  Britain. 

Other  English  Cities. —  Southwest  of  London,  on  the  coast,  is 
Southampton,  where  ocean  steamers  from  the  United  States  often 
stop  (Fig.  327),  and  where  fast  trains  wait  to  convey  passengers  to 
the  metropolis.  Close  to  Southampton  is  Portsmouth,  which  has 
a  great  navy  yard. 

Almost  due  west  of  London,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Severn  E-iver,  is 
Bristol,  which  is  engaged  in  the  lumber  trade  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco  and  ch'^colate.  It  was  formerly  next  to  London  in  size,  but  Liver- 
pool has  now  far  out- 
stripped it.  Can  you  sug- 
gest some  reason  why  ? 
Just  west  of  Bristol  is  Car- 
diff in  Wales,  the  chief 
point  in  Great  Britain  for 
the  export  of  coal. 

Knowing  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  dense  popula- 
tion in  northern  England, 
we  can  tell  the  principal 
exports  of  Hull  and  Liv- 
erpool. What  must 
they  be?  The  former 
city  naturally  trades 
mainly  with  Europe,  and 
the  latter  with  the  Ameri- 
cas and  West  Africa. 

Before  the  discovery 
of  the  New  World,  the 
west  side  of  Great  Britain 
had  little  commerce,  and 
Liverpool  (Fig.  322), 
therefore,  had  little  business  or  growth.  But  with  the  settlement  of 
America  the  city  grew  until  it  now  has  an  immense  trade  with  North 
and  South  America,  and  is  the  third  in  size  in  the  United  Kingdom. 


Fig.  324. 
The  churchyard  described  in  Gray's  "  Elegy.' 


THE   BRITISH   ISLES 


841 


Many  passengers  from  America  land  at  this  port  and  go  by  rail  to 
London.  Besides  its  commerce,  Liverpool  is  also  important  for  its 
shipbuilding.    What  circumstances  are  favorable  to  that  industry  ?    A 


Fig.  325. 
Kenilworth  Castle,  described  by  Scott  in  "  Kenilworth." 


ship  canal,  about  thirty -five  miles  in  length,  has  recently  been  built 
to  Manchester  at  an  expense  of  f  75,000,000. 

Cities  of  Scotland.  —  Glasgow  (Fig.  319),  on  the  western  side 
of  the  lowland  plain  of  southern  Scotland,  is  not  only  a  great  manu- 
facturing center,  but  it  is 
also  a  leading  shipping 
point  for  the  same  reasons 
that  Liverpool  is.  State 
them.  What  must  be 
some  of  its  principal  im- 
ports and  exports  ?  Why? 

Edinburgh,  unlike 
the  other  great  cities 
named,  is  neither  a  ship- 
ping point  nor  an  impor- 
tant manufacturing 
center.  It  is  distin- 
guished as  the  capital  of  ^^^-  ^26. 

Scotland,   and    as   one    of       Shakespeare's  house  at  Stratford-on-Avon.    Since  this 
,  ,  ,.p,      .   .  picture  was  taken,  the  house  has  been  somewhat 

tne  most   beautliui  cities  changed  in  appearance. 


842 


EUROPE 


of  the  British  Isles.  Its  importance  is  historical  rather  than  com- 
mercial; for  in  the  early  days  it  commanded  the  entrance  to  the 
lowland  of  southern  Scotland.  The  well-known  University  of 
Edinburgh  is  situated  here.  Leith,  a  short  distance  away,  is  the 
port  for  Edinburgh. 

Farther  north  on  the  coast  are  the  important  ports  of  Dundee  and 
Aberdeen  (p.  330).  The  former  sends  forth  a  number  of  Arctic  whaling 
vessels  each  year,  and  is  also  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of-  linen. 

Cities  of  Ireland.  — The  principal  cities  of  Ireland  are  on  the  east 
and  south  sides.  Why?  What  has  already  been  said  about  Bel- 
fast? (p.  836.)    It  is  also  noted  for  its  shipbuilding.    Dublin,  the 

capital  and  largest  city,  and  the  chief 
port  for  the  English  trade,  ships  farm 
and  other  products  to  England  and  re- 
ceives manufactured  goods  in  return. 
QuEENSTOWN  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is 
a  port  of  call  for  vessels  bound  from 
America  to  Great  Britain. 

Fuller  Reasons  for  the  Greatness  of 
the  British  Empire.  — While  we  have 
learned  many  facts  about  the  British 
Isles,  some  important  questions  are  not 
yet  fully  answered.  For  example,  why 
does  this  little  country  possess  more 
colonies  (Fig.  312)  than  any  other 
nation  of  the  earth?  Further,  why 
should  it  have  the  greatest  foreign 
trade?  And  why  the  greatest  number 
of  vessels  upon  the  sea? 

Some  of  the  reasons  in  answer  to 
these  questions  are  as  follows.  The 
fact  that  Great  Britain  is  so  small  —  it 
is  impossible  to  find  a  point  more  than 
seventy  miles  from  the  salt  water — is  a 
reason  why  many  of  the  British  have 
been  sailors.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  they  have  produced 
many  explorers. 

Nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that,  as  these  explorers  discovered 
new  parts  of  the  world,  they  laid  claim  to  them  in  the  name  of  their 


Fia.  327. 

large  German  steamship  which 
stops  at  Southampton ;  to  show 
its  great  size  in  comparison  with 
a  high  building  in  New  York  City 
and  with  the  Washington  Monu- 
ment (555  feet  high) .  The  length 
of  this  steamer  is  648  feet,  its 
width  66,  and  its  depth  43  feet. 


THE   BRITISH  ISLES 


843 


mother  country.  In  this  way,  and  by  war,  Great  Britain  came  into 
possession  of  the  Thirteen  Colonies  of  North  America,  and  of  Canada, 
India,  Australia,  much  of  Africa,  and  many  other  places  (Fig.  312). 
At  present  her  territory  includes  about  one  fifth  of  the  land  surface 
of  the  globe  and  one  fourth  of  its  inhabitants. 

These  colonies  and  dependencies  help  to  explain  Great  Britain's 
enormous  foreign  commerce  ;  for  the  colonies  have  found  it  more 
advantageous  to  trade  with  the  mother  country  than  with  other 
nations  speaking  a  different  language  and  having  less  understanding 
of  them  or  sympathy  with  them.  They  sell  to  her  their  raw  products, 
including  food,  and  she  in  return  sends  to  them  clothing,  steel  goods, 


Fig.  328. 
The  Houses  of  Parliamentc 


and  other  manufactured  articles.  It  is  largely  the  exchange  of  goods 
with  these  colonies  that  has  made  the  foreign  trade  of  Great  Britain 
nearly  twice  that  of  any  other  nation.  Next  to  her  colonies  Great 
Britain's  greatest  trade  is  with  the  United  States. 

Some  of  the  reasons  why  this  little  island  should  own  more 
vessels  than  any  other  nation  have  already  appeared.  In  fishing, 
exploring,  and  making  settlements,  a  large  number  of  ships  have 
been  needed;  and  for  the  proper  defense  of  her  widely  distributed 
colonies  many  warships  have  been  required.  Another  reason  for  so 
large  a  navy  is  the  fact  that  the  British  Isles  are  cut  off  from  all 


844  MUSOFM 

other  nations  by  water.  They  must,  therefore,  rely  rather  upon 
warships  for  defense  than  upon  a  standing  army. 

Further  than  this,  the  British  are  actually  forced  to  own  many 
ships.  Here  are  over  forty  million  people  living  on  two  small  islands, 
from  the  soil  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  necessary  food. 
They  must  send  ships  away  for  their  flour,  meat,  sugar,  coffee,  etc. ; 
and  they  must  send  abroad  for  much  of  their  raw  material  for  manu- 
facture. Also,  in  order  to  pay  for  the  raw  materials  and  food,  their 
manufactured  goods  must  be  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world  ; 
otherwise  their  extensive  manufacturing  would  be  impossible. 

These  facts,  coupled  with  the  remarkable  energy  of  the  British, 
are  the  principal  reasons  why  the  United  Kingdom  greatly  surpasses 
all  other  nations  in  the  number  of  her  warships  and  merchant  vessels. 

Government.  — The  government  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  a  limited 
monarchy,  the  present  ruler  being  King  Edward  VII.  We  know 
that  in  the  United  States  our  general  laws  are  made  at  Washington 
by  a  Congress  composed  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 
In  the  United  Kingdom  the  law-making  body  corresponding  to  this 
is  called  Parliament.  It  is  likewise  composed  of  two  bodies,  the 
House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  House  of  Lords  is  made  up  of  men  with  inherited  titles  who 
are  not  elected  by  the  people.  In  former  times  the  Lords  were  so 
powerful  that  the  people  had  little  control  of  the  government;  but  for 
many  generations  their  power  has  been  restricted,  and  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, whose  members  are  elected  by  popular  vote,  is  now  by  far  the  more 
important.  Through  them  the  people  are  able  to  make  their  own  laws, 
and  the  government  is  therefore  one  of  great  freedom. 

While  the  sovereign  is  nominally  the  executive,  like  our  President, 
the  execution  of  laws  is  really  in  charge  of  a  Cabinet  composed  of  a  Prime 
Minister  and  several  other  Ministers,  who  are  responsible  to  the  House  of 
Commons  for  their  actions.  If  the  Ministers  lose  the  support  of  the 
House,  they  are  obliged  to  resign ;  and  then  others  are  appointed  who  will 
carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  people. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Give  the  location  and  area  of  the  British  Isles. 
(2)  What  noteworthy  facts  about  their  importance  ?  (3)  What  about  the  inhabit- 
ants? (4)  Tell  about  their  climate.  (5)  Their  physiography.  (6)  The  effects 
of  the  ice  sheet.  (7)  The  coast  line.  (8)  Why  is  so  much  of  the  land  in  grass  ? 
(9)  Tell  about  the  live  stock.  (10)  What  crops  cannot  be  raised?  Why? 
(11)  What  are  the  principal  farm  products?  (12)  What  disadvantage  do  the 
people  suffer  in  regard  to  food  supply  ?  (13)  Give  the  principal  facts  about  the 
fishing  industry.     (14)  What  metals  are  found  in  small  quantities?     (15)  How 


BUQGXSTIOIfB  846 

about  the  abundance  of  coal  and  iron  ore  ?  (16)  Locate  the  chief  coal  fields  in 
Great  Britain.  (17)  Tell  about  the  iron  ore  in  Great  Britain.  (18)  Name  other 
important  mineral  products.  (19)  Give  reasons  for  the  development  of  textile 
manufacturing  in  Great  Britain.  (20)  What  cities  are  especially  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  goods?  (21)  For  cotton?  (22)  Tell  about  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  steel  goods.  (23)  What  about  the  farm  products  of  Ireland? 
What  about  minerals  there?  (24)  About  manufacturing?  (25)  What  is  used 
for  fuel?  (26)  Tell  about  the  linen  industry  of  Ireland.  (27)  About  the  popu- 
lation. (28)  Name  and  locate  the  cities  in  Great  Britain  that  are  distinguished 
for  manufacturing.  (29)  Name  and  locate  the  principal  coast  cities.  (30)  Tell 
about  London :  its  location,  principal  kinds  of  business,  etc.  (31)  What  noted 
places  are  near  by  ?  (32)  Tell  about  each  of  the  other  cities  mentioned.  Locate 
each.  (33)  Give  some  reasons  why  the  British  Isles  have  more  colonies  than  any 
other  country.  (34)  Why  more  foreign  trade  ?  (35)  Why  the  greatest  number 
of  vessels  ?     (36)  Tell  about  their  government. 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  On  a  sketch  map  of  Great  Britain  mark  the  position  of 
the  highlands  and  lowlands.  (2)  Considering  the  prevailing  winds,  which  side  of 
the  great  cities  must  be  most  free  from  smoke?  (3)  Why  are  sheep  able  to  eat 
shorter  grass  than  cattle?  (4)  Make  a  list  of  goods  made  out  of  flax,  and  place 
samples  in  the  school  cabinet,  (5)  Write  a  paper  telling  in  what  ways  the  people 
of  the  British  Isles  and  the  United  States  depend  on  one  another.  (6)  State  ways 
in  which  New  England  and  Great  Britain  resemble  each  other.  (7)  What  names 
of  British  cities  have  you  met  in  your  study  of  the  United  States  ?  In  what  por- 
tion of  the  United  States  are  they  ?  (8)  Collect  pictures  of  scenes  in  the  British 
Isles.  (9)  What  books  have  you  read  which  describe  the  scenery  or  the  people  of 
these  islands  ?  (10)  Find  out  other  facts  about  the  large  steamships.  (11)  What 
advantages  do  you  see  in  the  fact  that  the  British  Isles  are  near  the  continent,  yet 
separated  by  water  ?  (12)  Read  in  George  Eliot's  "  Silas  Marner  "  for  a  description 
of  old-fashioned  manufacturing  by  hand  looms.  (13)  Also  in  "  John  Halifax, 
Gentleman,"  for  an  account  of  the  introduction  of  steam  into  the  factories. 
(14)  Read  Gray's  "  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard."  (15)  Read  Scott's 
"  Kenilworth."  (16)  Find  out  some  facts  about  Queen  Victoria.  (17)  What  do 
you  know  about  Shakespeare  ? 

For  References  to  books  and  articles,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


III.     THE   NETHERLANDS   AND   BELGIUM 

Map  Questions  (Fig.  337).  —  (1)  Compare  the  area  of  the  Netherlands  with 
that  of  Belgium  ;  with  that  of  Great  Britain.  (2)  Compare  the  coast  lines  of  the 
Netherlands  and  Belgium.  (3)  What  large  river  crosses  the  Netherlands? 
Through  what  countries  does  it  pass  ?  (4)  What  countries  border  the  Nether- 
lands?   (5)  Belgium  ?     (6)  Make  an  outline  map  of  these  two  countries. 


The  Netherlands  (Holland) 

Physiography.  —  Figure  329  shows  the  Netherlands  to  be  a  pe- 
culiar country.  The  greater  portion  is  very  low,  and  some  parts 
are  as  much  as  fifteen  feet  below  sea  level.     In  fact,  if  protection 

against  sea  and  river  were  not 
provided,  about  one  half  of  the 
surface  would  be  occasionally  or 
permanently  under  water.  This 
explains  why  the  country,  some- 
times called  Holland,  is  more  com- 
monly known  as  the  Netherlands, 
a  word  meaning  low  country. 

The  Rhine  has  brought  much  of 
the  soil ;  some  of  it,  no  doubt,  all  the 
way  from  the  Alps.  A  large  part 
of  the  country  is,  in  fact,  a  delta  of 
sand  and  clay  built  by  the  Ehine, 
and  it  is  so  low  and  level  that  over 
much  of  the  surface  the  only  notable 
elevations  are  either  sand  dunes, 
thrown  up  by  the  wind,  or  glacial 
moraines  of  sand  and  gravel.  In 
Eigure  306  notice  how  far  the  ice 
sheet  advanced  in  this  section.  Hard  rocks  are  found  only  in  the 
eastern  and  southeastern  parts,  where  the  highest  point  is  a  little  over  a 
thousand  feet. 

In  so  level  a  country  there  can  be  little  water  power;  and  little 
mineral  wealth  may  be  expected  in  the  soft  clays  and  sands.  Some 
iron  is  found  in  the  bogs,  which  are  extensive,  and  a  small  amount 

346 


Fig.  329. 

Map  to  show  the  portion  of  the  Netherlands 
that  is  below  sea  level. 


NETHERLANDS 


347 


of  coal  is  mined  in  the  extreme  southeast.  Under  the  circumstances, 
is  there  promise  of  much  manufacturing? 

Owing  to  all  these  disadvantages  the  Netherlands  might  seem  to 
be  incapable  of  supporting  a  large  population.  Nevertheless,  that 
country  has  about  two  thirds  as  many  inhabitants  as  the  remarkably 
productive  state  of  New  York,  which  is  four  times  as  large. 

People  and  Government.  —  Perhaps  the  leading  explanation  of  this 
prosperity  is  the  high  character  of  the  Butch  people,  as  the  Nether- 
landers  are  called.  For  centuries  they  have  felt  an  intense  love  for 
civil  and  religious  liberty;  but,  being  a  small  nation,  they  have 
suffered  many  hardships  in  attempting  to  establish  independence  and 


mmmmm: 


Fig.  330. 
A  farm  scene  on  the  plains  of  Holland. 


tolerant  laws.  At  one  time  they  were  under  German  control;  later 
they  came  under  the  cruel  rule  of  Spain ;  but  finally  they  obtained 
their  independence,  and  their  form  of  government  is  now  a  limited 
monarchy. 

While  their  belief  in  freedom  brought  them  untold  suffering,  it  was  a 
cause  of  progress  as  well.  It  was  to  Holland  that  the  Pilgrims  first  fled 
when  religious  persecutions  drove  them  from  England ;  and  from  time  to 
time  large  numbers  of  Huguenots,  Germans,  and  others  found  refuge 
there.  Their  settlement  in  the  Netherlands  had  a  great  influence  on  the 
intelligence  with  which  Dutch  industries  were  developed. 

Agriculture.  —  Agriculture,  including  grazing,  is  the  principal 
industry  of  the  kingdom,  although,  largely  on  account  of  swamps 


348 


EUROPE 


and  sand  dunes,  a  fifth  of  its  area  is  waste  land.  The  principal 
farm  products  are  grains,  such  as  rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and 
buckwheat ;  also  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  beans,  peas,  and  flax.  More 
land  is  devoted  to  pasturage  (Fig.  330)  than  to  these  crops,  partly 
because  much  of  the  higher  land  is  too  sandy  for  cultivation,  and 
partly  because  the  moisture  in  the  lowlands  aids  in  the  growth  of  excel- 
lent grass.     Cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  and  horses  are  raised  in  great  num- 

bers;  and  quantities  of  but- 
ter and  cheese  are  made. 

There  is,  of  course,  good 
reason  why  the  Dutch  have 
been  willing  to  endure  the 
labor  and  danger  involved 
in  reclaiming  large  traats  of 
land  from  the  sea.  As  the 
population  increased,  and  the 
need  of  new  farm  land  grew, 
it  was  found  possible  to  keep 
the  high  tides  and  rivers 
from  overflowing  the  salt 
marshes  and  flood  plains. 
In  this  way  the  people  have 
added  large  areas  of  fertile 
land,  and  have  also  been  en- 
couraged to  undertake  the 
even  more  difficult  task  of 
reclaiming  the  shallow  sea- 
bottom. 

Such  drainage  began  in 

the  twelfth  century  and  has 

continued  until  the  present  day.     It  has  already  about  doubled  the  area 

of  the  Netherlands,  and  now  a  scheme  is  under  way  to  reclaim  the  Zuider 

Zee  itself  (Fig.  329). 

The  ditches  for  draining  the  land  really  form  canals,  which,  by  means 
of  their  embankments,  inclose  houses,  gardens,  and  fields,  much  as  fences 
or  stone  walls  inclose  houses  and  gardens  in  other  countries.  They  are 
so  numerous  that  they  extend  over  the  lowlands  in  a  great  network. 

Manufacturing.  —  Although  there  is  very  little  coal  or  water 
power  in  the  kingdom,  there  is  an  abundance  of  coal  near  by  in 
Belgium,  Germany,  and  England.  Accordingly,  since  the  people 
require  quantities  of  cloth,  shoes,  machinery,  etc.,  they  import  coal 
and  many  necessary  raw  materials  in  order  to  manufacture  for 
themselves.     The  strangers  who  fled  to  the  Netherlands  to  escape 


Fig.  331. 
A  Dutch  windmill. 


2fETHERLAND8 


649 


persecution  did  much  toward  developing  early  manufacturing,  and 
this  industry  now  ranks  next  in  importance  to  agriculture. 

Commerce.  —  Commerce  is  highly  developed  for  several  reasons. 
In  the  first  place,  the  ditches,  built  primarily  for  purposes  of  drainage, 
are  also  valuable  as  canals;  and  these,  together  with  the  rivers,  make 
transportation  by  water  very  easy  to  all  sections  of  the  country. 
The  flat-topped  dikes  also  make  excellent  wagon  roads  ;  and  the 
level  nature  of  the  land  renders  the  construction  of  tramways  and 
railways  a  simple  matter.  Many  of  the  railways  connect  directly 
with  the  European  trunk  lines. 

In  the  second  place,  the  position  of  Holland  gives  her  a  distinct 
commercial  advantage.      The  Netherlands  lie  directly  in  the  path  of 


^..^^^                   ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^mjlji 

il 

HH^B 

^m 

Fig.  332. 
A  canal  in  Amsterdam.    Notice  the  peculiar  fronts  of  the  Dutch  houses. 

entrance "  to  northern  Europe,  and  the  country  is  crossed  by  the 
Rhine  River,  which  is  navigable  for  a  long  distance  into  Germany. 
Therefore  much  of  the  American  and  British  trade  with  central 
Europe  is  carried  on  through  Holland. 

Colonies.  —  The  Dutch  colonies  (Fig.  354)  furnish  a  third  reason  for  an 
extensive  development  of  commerce.  Since  the  very  earliest  times  the 
Dutch  have  been  in  close  contact  with  the  salt  water.  Not  only  have  they 
battled  with  the  sea  in  reclaiming  land,  but  to  visit  some  of  their  near 


350*  EUROPE 

neighbors  they  have  been  obliged  to  cross  it.  Moreover,  both  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  the  North  Sea,  near  at  hand,  contain  many  food  fish ;  and  this 
fact  has  led  to  development  of  the  fisheries,  one  of  the  leading  industries 
of  the  country. 

The  men  have  therefore  become  expert  sailors  j  and  when  discoveries 
of  new  lands  were  made,  the  Dutch  sailors  naturally  shared  in  the 
explorations  and  established  colonies. 

The  attempt  of  the  Dutch  to  colonize  our  Hudson  valley  was  thwarted 
by  the  English ;  but  Holland  retains  possession  of  other  important  regions. 
Of  these,  Dutch  Guiana  in  South  America  has  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  300)  ;  but  the  most  important  are  Java  and  several  other  East  India 
islands.  The  manufacture  of  raw  products  from  the  colonies  constitutes 
one  of  the  principal  industries  of  the  coast  cities. 

The  possession  of  these  colonies,  Holland's  location,  her  water  and  rail 
connections  with  other  countries,  and  her  many  canals  and  excellent  roads, 
make  the  transportation  of  goods  an  important  industry. 

Cities.  —  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  are  the  two  principal 
commercial  centers.  The  former,  the  largest  city  in  the  Netherlands, 
is  about  the  size  of  Baltimore.  It  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by 
canal,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  and  museums,  as  well  as  its 
shipping,  manufacturing,  and  diamond  cutting.  The  rulers  of  Hol- 
land are  crowned  at  Amsterdam,  the  capital,  although  the  royal  family 
resides  at  The  Hague,  where  the  government  buildings  are  situated. 

Rotterdam,  next  to  Amsterdam  in  size,  is  the  great  seaport  of 
the  Netherlands.  Its  location  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  makes 
it  one  of  the  principal  ports  for  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and 
explains  why  it  is  the  European  terminus  for  some  of  the  great 
steamship  lines  from  New  York  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Belgium 

Physiography.  — The  surface  of  Belgium  forcibly  recalls  that  of 
Holland.  The  land  is  low  and  flat  in  the  northern  and  western  parts, 
and  gradually  rises  and  grows  more  rolling  toward  the  south,  and  east. 

However,  the  highest  point  in  Belgium  (2230  feet)  is  more  than 
twice  that  in  the  Netherlands.  Instead  of  being  caused  by  glacial 
moraines  and  sand  dunes,  this  highland  is  a  mountainous  region, 
formed  by  upheaval  of  the  earth's  crust  (Fig.  333).  The  weathering 
of  ages,  which  has  worn  these  mountains  so  low,  has  revealed  valu- 
able mineral  deposits,  especially  coal  and  iron,  which  fortunately 
occur  near  together,  as  in  England.  Lead,  zinc,  and  silver  are  also 
obtained. 


BELGIUM 


361 


Belgium,  therefore,  possesses  agricultural  advantages  similar  to 
those  of  Holland,  while  the  minerals  secure  opportunities  for  manu- 
facturing far  superior  to  those  of  the  Dutch.  These  facts  help  to 
explain  why,  although  Belgium  is  even  smaller  than  Holland,  its 
population  is  one  fourth  larger,  or  about  6,500,000.  How  does  that 
compare  with  the  population  of  New  York  state  ?  Indeed,  the  small 
country  of  Belgium  is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  regions  on 
the  earth.  Figure  out  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile 
and  compare  it  with  the  number  in  New  York,  or  in  your  own  state. 

People  and  Government.  —  Like  the  Dutch,  the  Belgians  have 
endured  untold  sufferings  in  their  long  struggle  for  independence. 
Their  country  has  been,  to  some  extent,  a  battlefield  for  the  larger 
countries  or  powers  of  Europe;  for  example,  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 


Fig.  333. 
A  view  in  the  hilly  section  of  southern  Belgium. 


by  which  the  career  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  ended,  was  fought 
there  in  1815.  Since  1830,  however,  the  Belgians  have  been  inde- 
pendent.    Their  form  of  government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

The  intelligence  of  the  Belgians  is  of  the  highest  order.  Even  during 
the  Middle  Ages  their  woolen  manufactures  were  the  best  developed  in 
Europe,  and  at  various  times  the  kings  of  England  have  induced  Belgian 


852 


MUROPJB! 


artisans  to  move  to  England  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  factory 
work.  Since  the  great  nations  of  Europe  have  declared  Belgium  neutral 
territory,  thus  prohibiting  further  fighting  there,  the  people  have  found  it 
necessary  to  keep  only  a  small  standing  army,  and  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  industries.  As  a  result,  Belgium  has  enjoyed  a  wonderful 
industrial  growth. 

Agriculture. —  A  very  small  part  of  Belgium  is  below  sea  level; 
but,  as  in  the  Netherlands,  much  of  the  country  is  so  flat  and  fertile 
that  a  view  on  the  Belgian  plain  would  closely  resemble  that  in  Fig- 
ure 330.  More  than  half  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  agriculture, 
the  chief  products,  besides  live  stock,  being  grain,  flax,  hemp,  fruit, 
and  sugar  beets.  Among  the  farm  animals,  the  Flemish  ^  horses  are 
especially  noted  for  their  great  size  and  strength. 

The  Belgian  method  of  farming  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  that  in  the 
United  States ;  for  instead  of  ranging  from  one  hundred  to  several  thou- 
sand acres,  farms  in  Belgium  usually 
contain  not  more  than  two  or  three 
acres.  To  a  large  extent,  spading 
takes  the  place  of  plowing,  and 
such  hand  labor,  guided  by  the  ex- 
perience of  many  generations,  secures 
large  yields  of  the  best  quality. 
Flemish  flax  is  the  best  in  the  world. 
In  spite  of  such  careful  cultivation  of 
the  soil  much  food  has  to  be  imported, 
as  in  Great  Britain. 

Mining  and  Manufacturing. — 
Quite  distinct  from  the  level 
northern  plain,  close  set  with 
farms  and  towns,  is  the  hilly 
region  of  the  southern  angle,  cov- 
ered with  forests  and  rich  in 
More  than  one  hundred  thousand  men  are  engaged  in  min- 


Fia.  334. 
A  dog  team  in  Belgium 

minerals. 


ing,  and  coal  and  coke  are  among  the  leading  exports.  Around  the 
northwest  slope  of  the  hilly  region  is  located  one  of  the  world's 
busiest  industrial  regions.  As  in  England,  the  three  important 
kinds   of   manufacturing    are    cotton,    wool,    and    iron    and   steel. 

1  Derived  from  Flanders,  a  former  country  of  Europe  which  included  a  part  of  the 
Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  France.  Nearly  half  the  Belgians  speak  the  Flemish 
language. 


BELGIUM 


358 


Linen  and  glass  are  also  made.  But  the  country  is  so  small,  and 
there  are  so  many  water  ways  and  railways,  —  as  in  the  Netherlands, 
—  that  coal  is  transported  cheaply  to  all  sections.  Manufacturing, 
therefore,  is  well  distributed,  although  the  coal  comes  from  the  south. 
Commerce. —  By  its  position  Belgium  secures  many  of  the 
advantages  that  Holland  enjoys;  that  is,  it  is  a  gateway  to  and 
from  the  interior  of  Europe.  To  be  sure,  its  coast  line  is  only 
about  forty  miles  in  length  and  the  water  there  is  shallow;  but 
Antwerp  has  an  excellent  harbor.  There  is  no  large  river  like 
the  Rhine  in  Holland,  but  two  smaller  streams,  rising  in  France, 


t  IG.  6^. 

A  view  in  Ghent.    Notice  the  peculiar  architecture  of  the  houses. 


are  navigable  for  some  distance.  There  is  also  an  extensive 
system  of  canals.  Besides  these  water  ways,  Belgium  has  more 
miles  of  railway,  for  its  size,  than  any  other  country;  and  the  rail- 
ways are  closely  connected  with  the  large  trunk  lines.  For  these 
reasons  transportation  of  goods  is  one  of  the  leading  industries  in 
Belgium. 

While  the  Belgians  do  not  possess  such  valuable  colonies  as  the  Dutch, 
they  have  been  prominent  in  African  exploration.     It  was  the  Belgian 


354  EUROPE 

king  who  sent  Stanley  to  Africa,  and  the  King  of  Belgium  is  sovereign  of 
Kongo  State. 

Cities. —  Brussels,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  situated  in  the 
heart  of  the  kingdom,  is  about  the  size  of  Boston.  The  name 
Brussels  carpets  suggests  one  of  its  industries;  but  carriage  and  lace 
making  are  at  present  among  its  most  important  kinds  of  manufac- 
ture. It  is  an  intellectual  as  well  as  a  political  and  commercial 
center,  having  numerous  picture  galleries,  museums,  and  schools. 

Antwerp,  next  in  size,  is  situated  about  sixty  miles  from  the 
sea,  on  a  small  river.  Some  of  the  great  steamship  lines  from  New 
York  have  their  European  terminus  there,  and  the  port  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Europe.  The  leading  kinds  of  manufacturing 
are  sugar  refining,  distilling,  lace  making,  and  shipbuilding. 

Many  other  cities  are  distinguished  for  manufacturing.  The  largest 
are  Liege,  the  "  Birmingham  of  Belgium,"  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  firearms,  cutlery,  glass,  and  various  kinds  of  machinery ;  and  Ghent 
(Fig.  335),  noted  for  linen  and  cotton  goods,  and  for  machinery. 

Review  Questions. —  The  Netherlands.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  physiography 
of  Holland.  (2)  What  are  the  principal  mineral  products  ?  (3)  How  does  Hol- 
land compare  with  New  York  in  size  and  population?  (4)  Tell  about  the  people  ; 
the  government ;  agriculture.  (5)  State  reasons  for  reclaiming  the  land.  (6)  What 
about  manufacturing  ?  (7)  Give  three  reasons  for  the  extensive  development  of 
Dutch  commerce.  (8)  How  have  the  Dutch  come  to  have  several  important  colo- 
nies?    (9)   Name  the  principal  colonies.     (10)  Tell  about  the  chief  cities. 

Belgium.  —  (11)  Compare  Belgium  with  Holland  as  to  physiography. 
(12)  Tell  about  the  importance  of  Belgium  ;  its  people  and  government ;  its  agri- 
culture ;  its  mining  and  manufacturing.  (13)  What  reasons  are  there  for  its 
important  commerce  ? 

Suggestions.  —  The  Netherlands.  —  (1)  Why  are  the  winds  likely  to  blow 
with  special  force  and  regularity  across  Holland  ?  (2)  Why  is  this  fact  of  value 
to  the  Dutch  ?  (3)  What  effect  must  the  winds  have  upon  the  rank  vapors  that 
rise  from  the  damp  soil  ?  (4)  What  do  you  know  about  the  flower  gardens  of 
the  Dutch?     (5)  Have  you  seen    any    Dutch  pottery,  especially  Delft  wares? 

(6)  Why  did  not  the  Pilgrims  remain  in  Holland  instead  of  coming  to  America? 

(7)  Why  should  not  Rotterdam  be  as  large  a  city  as  New  York  ?  (8)  Find  out 
about  the  Peace  Conference  of  1899  at  The  Hague.  (9)  What  reasons  are  there 
for  selecting  a  small  country  like  Holland  for  this  purpose,  and  for  making  treaties 
between  nations  which  have  been  at  war  ? 

Belgium.  —  (10)  There  are  greater  extremes  of  temperature  in  Belgium  than 
in  England.  Why?  (11)  Find  out  some  facts  about  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
(12)  Give  several  reasons  for  spading  instead  of  plowing  land.  (13)  Examine  a 
piece  of  lace.    From  what  material  is  lace  manufactured,  and  how  is  the  work  done  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


IV.   FRANCE 


(For  Map  Questions,  see  Map,  Fig.  337.) 

People  and  Government. —  The  early  inhabitants  of  France,  called 
Gauls,  were  conquered  by  the  Romans,  who  taught  them  their  lan- 
guage and  many  of  their  customs.  After  the  fall  of  Rome,  France 
was  divided  into  independent  kingdoms,  which  were  often  at  war 
with  one  another  or  with  neighboring  countries. 

The  situation  of  France  has,  however,  tended  to  bring  the  king- 
doms together;  for  the  country  is  inclosed  on  two  sides  by  the  sea, 
and  elsewhere,  in  large 
part,  by  mountains.  No- 
tice how  completely  the 
Pyrenees  separate  France 
from  Spain;  and  what  a 
barrier  the  lofty  Alps  form 
along  the  Italian  and  Swiss 
boundaries.  Even  north 
of  the  Alps,  a  part  of  the 
boundary  is  formed  by 
highlands.  While  the  in- 
habitants were  thus  partly 
protected  from  invasion, 
there    were    few  barriers 


Fig.  336. 


A  valley  on  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees. 


within  France  itself  that  kept  them  apart.  It  was  not  difficult, 
therefore,  to  bring  them  under  one  rule.  At  present  France  has  a 
republican  form  of  government. 

Monaco  in  the  southeast  and  Andorra  in  the  Pyrenees  (p.  366)  are  the 

only  exceptions.  The  principality  of  Monaco,  only  eight  square  miles  in 
area,  is  a  noted  winter  resort  because  of  the  fine  climate. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  As  we  have  seen,  the  chief  high- 
lands of  France  are  in  the  south  and  southeast.  Among  these  high- 
lands the   loftiest  are  the  Alps,   whose  highest  peak,    Mt.    Blanc 


366  EUROPE 

(15,781  feet),  is  in  France.  Had  the  mountains  stretched  along  the 
western  coast,  the  history  of  Fiance  would  have  been  very  different. 
As  it  is,  the  prevailing  westerlies  are  allowed  to  distribute  their 
rain  somewhat  evenly  over  the  country,  supplying  all  sections  with 
an  abundance  of  moisture  for  agriculture. 

The  position  of  the  highlands  is  of  great  importance  for  commerce 
as  well  as  for  farming.  Fully  three  fourths  of  France  is  a  compara- 
tively level  plain  sloping  westward  from  the  low  central  plateau, 
which  rises  steeply  as  the  western  wall  of  the  long  Rhone  valley. 
All  but  one  of  the  large  rivers  rise  in  this  plateau,  and  flow  gently 
down  its  slope  to  the  Atlantic.  Thus  navigation  is  possible  far  into 
the  country.  Locate  and  name  the  three  largest  rivers.  How  does 
the  Rhone  differ  from  the  other  two  ? 

As  might  be  expected,  the  summers  are  warmer  than  in  England, 
since  France  lies  almost  entirely  south  of  that  country  and  is  less 
under  the  influence  of  the  ocean.  The  southeastern  section,  though 
as  far  north  as  Boston,  has  a  semi-tropical  climate  (Fig.  340), 
owing  to  the  presence  of  the  warm  Mediterranean  waters  and  to 
the  protection  from  cold  north  winds  afforded  by  the  Alps  (pp.  322 
and  323). 

Agriculture. —  France  is  primarily  a  farming  country,  and  nearly 
half  the  people  devote  their  energies  to  agriculture,  including  graz- 
ing. The  same  grains  are  raised  as  in  England.  What  are  they  ? 
(p.  329.)  Wheat  is  the  most  important,  and  more  of  this  grain  is 
produced  than  in  any  other  European  country  excepting  Russia.  Yet 
France  raises  only  about  half  as  much  wheat  as  the  United  States, 
and  not  nearly  enough  for  the  needs  of  her  people.  Grapes,  not 
important  in  the  British  Isles,  thrive  in  the  warmer  climate  of  central 
and  southern  France. 

Grapes  form  the  most  valuable  of  all  French  crops,  and  more  are 
raised  in  France  than  in  any  other  country  of  the  world.  This  fruit, 
although  capable  of  enduring  severe  cold,  requires  a  warm  summer.  The 
distribution  of  the  vineyards,  therefore,  shows  forcibly  the  difference 
between  the  climates  of  England  and  France,  Grapes  do  not  mature  well 
in  northern  France,  but  they  flourish  in  the  warm  valleys  from  the  Loire 
southward. 

As  in  other  countries,  the  highlands,  as  a  rule,  are  capable  of 
little  cultivation  and  are  usually  given  over  to  grazing.  Give  exam- 
ples from  other  countries.  As  in  England,  too,  there  are  broad 
tracts   of  lowland  which  are  better  adapted  to  the  production   of 


Fig.  337. 

Map  Questions:  France. —  (1)  France  is  the  nearest  country  to  the  British 
Isles.  Estimate  the  distance.  (2)  Compare  the  two  countries  as  to  area.  (3)  As 
to  population.  (4)  What  waters  border  France?  (5)  What  countries?  (6)  In 
what  respects  is  its  position  favorable  to  commerce  ?  (7)  What  do  you  observe  about 
lihe  general  direction  of  the  rivers  ?    (8)  Locate  the  island  of  Corsica,  a  part  of  France. 


FBAJSrCM 


367 


grass  than  to  other  crops.  These  facts  explain  why  there  are  more 
than  thirteen  million  cattle  and  twenty-one  million  sheep  in  France. 
What  does  that  signify  in  regard  to  manufacturing  ? 

Minerals. — France  is  quite  inferior  to  the  British  Isles  in  its  min- 
eral products.  Coal  is  the  most  valuable  mineral;  but  while  Great 
Britain,  after  supplying  her  many  factories,  exports  a  large  amount 
of  coal,  France  has  to  import  some.  The  principal  coal  beds,  from 
which  more  than  half  the  output  comes,  lie  close  to  Belgium.  They 
are,  in  fact,  a  continuation 
of  the  deposits  that  were 
found  to  be  so  plentiful  in 
that  country.  The  other 
beds  are  small  and  scat- 
tered, but  the  best  of 
them  lie  near  the  center  of 
the  country,  not  far  from 
St.  Etienne.  Of  what 
advantage  is  this  loca- 
tion ? 

The  quantity  of  iron  pro- 
duced is  small  and  comes 
mainly  from  the  northeast, 
near  the  coal  fields.  Fine 
clays  for  porcelain  abound 
in  central  France,  and  build- 
ing stones  are  quarried  in 
nearly  every  part.  ^^^^  ^^^ 


A  view  in  central  southern  France  (Monts  d'Au- 
vergne  on  the  map).  This  is  a  region  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  and  the  church  is  built  upon  a  steep 
lava  hill. 


Manufacturing.  — In 

spite  of  the  limited  supply 
of  fuel,  France  is  a  great 
manufacturing  nation.  Besides  silk  and  wine,  in  the  production  of 
which  that  country  is  the  leading  nation  of  the  world,  there  is  ex- 
tensive manufacturing  of  metal,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods. 

The  Frenchman  has  a  peculiar  appreciation  of  what  is  graceful, 
delicate,  and  elegant.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  our  fashions 
in  dress  originate  in  France ;  and  a  skirt,  a  pair  of  gloves,  or  a  bonnet  from 
Paris  is  expected  to  be  a  trifle  more  desirable  than  one  bought  elsewhere. 

Wool  and  Cotton  Manufactures.  —  The  northern  part  of  France  is 
the  section  especially  noted  for  the  woolen  industry.     Here  coal  is 


B58 


EUROPE 


most  easily  obtained;  and  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  raised  on  the 
hills  and  plains  near  by.  Besides  this,  foreign  wool  from  Argen- 
tina and  Australia  is  easily  imported  at  Havre  and  at  the  Belgian 
port  of  Antwerp.  Remembering  that  the  goods  turned  out  —  as 
hosiery,  carpets,  and  underclothing  —  are  of  high  grade,  and  such 
as  wealthy  people  wish,  we  see  that  this  location,  between  the 
two  wealthiest  capitals  of  the  world,  is  especially  advantageous. 
Woolen  cloths  are,  next  to  silk  goods,  the  most  important  French 
export  to  Great  Britain. 

Cotton  manufacturing  —  mainly  for  the  home  market,  as  indi- 
cated above  —  is  also  extensively  developed  near  the  coal  fields  of 


Fig.  340. 

A  street  scene  in  Nice  (near  Monaco),  showing  the  nature  of  the  vegetation  in  that  warm 
climate.    Find  out  whether  Nice  is  north  or  south  of  your  home. 

northern  France.  An  important  reason  for  such  work  at  this  point 
is  the  ease  with  which  American  cotton  may  be  imported;  and  this 
explains  why  Rouen  on  the  Seine  is  a  prominent  center  for  cotton 
goods.  There  are  also  cotton  factories  in  eastern  France,  where 
water  power  is  used  instead  of  steam  power.  Why  should  there  be 
water  power  in  that  section  ? 

Silk  Manufacturing.  — Because  the  climate  and  soil  of  the  Rhone 
valley  are  adapted  to  the  mulberry  tree,  and  because  coal  mines 
are  near  by,  this  section  is  a  great  silk  manufacturing  region. 
Lyon  is  the  center,  and  St.  Etienne  and  Paris  are  noted  for 
tliis  industry. 


FBANGE 


S59 


The  traveler  in  the  Rhone  valley  sees  grove  after  grove  of  mulberry- 
trees,  carefully  cared  for  in  order  to  supply  an  abundance  of  leaves  for  the 
silkworm  to  eat  in  summer. 

The  silkworm  moth,  at  the  end  of  the  caterpillar  stage,  weaves  a 
cocoon  about  itself.  The  material  of  which  the  cocoon  is  composed  is  a 
thread,  about  two  miles  in  length,  which  must  be  very  carefully  unwound. 
The  single  strand  is  such  extremely  fine  silk  that,  in  order  to  make  a  fiber 
strong  enough  for  spinning  and  weaving,  it  is  united  with  several  others. 

Since  the  worms  are  reared  under  cover,  the  silk  industry  may  be 
carried  on  in  any  climate  well  adapted  to  the  mulberry  tree.  It  is  pos- 
sible, therefore,  to  make  raw  silk  in  many  parts  of  the  world;  but  the 
feeding  of  the  worms  and  the  transformation  of  the  cocoons  into  silk  for 
the  market  require  much  labor,  care,  and  skill.  On  that  account  silk  pro- 
duction is  chiefly  confined  to  those  parts  of  the  world  where  laborers  will 
accept  low  wages,  and  where,  owing  to  generations  of  such  work,  habits 
of  watchfulness  and  care  have  been  developed.  China  accordingly  pro- 
duces the  greatest  amount  of  raw  silk ;  but  France,  in  the  midst  of  the 
civilized  world,  where  the  market  for  silk  goods  is  greatest,  also  produces 
a  large  quantity  and  is  the  leading  country  for  the  manufacture  of  silk. 
Make  as  long  a  list  of  silk  goods  as  you  can. 

Other  Manufactures.  —  The  extensive  cultivation  of  grapes  has 
been  mentioned.     Much  of  the  wine  made  from  them  is  consumed 


A  farm  scene  in  southern  central  France.    The  mountain  peak  is  an  extinct  volcano,  one 
of  the  Monts  d'Auvergne  (Figs.  337  and  839>. 


360 


EUltOPS 


at  home,  for  in  France  even  the  day  laborer  drinks  wine  at  his 
meals  in  place  of  water.  An  enormous  amount  of  wine  is  also 
shipped  abroad.  The  manufacture  of  steel  goods  is  important  in 
some  places,  but   to  no  such  extent  as  in  Great  Britain.      Other 

kinds  of  manufacturing  are 
mentioned  under  the  cities. 
Paris.  —  Paris,  the  capi- 
tal of  France,  is  the  largest 
city  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  the  third  largest 
in  the  world.  It  numbers 
more  than  2,500,000  in- 
habitants. 

Location  (Fig.  338).— 
There  is  a  definite  reason  for 
the  exact  site  ;  for  an  island 
in  the  Seine  at  that  point 
made  the  river  easier  to 
bridge  over,  while  at  the  same  time  it  aided  in  defense.  Aside 
from  that,  the  Seine,  having  a  slower  current  than  the  Rhone,  and 
being  less  subject  to  overflows  than  the  Loire,  is  more  easily  navi- 
gable than  any  other  river  in  France.     Its  upper  tributaries  bring  it 


Fig.  342. 
A  village  in  southern  France. 


Fig.  B4». 
A  view  looking  over  Paris,  with  the  Seine  in  the  ceatOT  of  the  pictuM. 


FRANCE 


861 


into  close  touch  with  eastern  France  ;  and,  by  the  aid  of  canals, 
there  is  water  connection  with  the  Loire  and  Saone,  and  with  the 
Rhine  in  Germany.  Furthermore,  Paris  is  situated  on  the  main 
trade  route  from  the  Mediterranean  to  northern  and  central  France, 
which  follows  the  Rhone,  the  Saone  and  the  Seine.  In  addition, 
Paris  is  located  in  the  midst  of  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  country, 
and  not  very  far  from  several  other  densely  populated  countries.  For 
these  several  reasons  it  has  always  been  the  principal  French  city. 

Paris  as  an  Art  Center,  —  Reference  has  already  been  made  to 
the  appreciation  of  grace  and  elegance  characteristic  of  the  French 


Fig.  344. 
Fontainebleau,  a  beautiful  wooded  park  south  of  Paris. 

people.  Napoleon  and  other  rulers  collected  art  treasures  from 
various  nations,  and  founded  collections  and  schools  which  have  made 
Paris  famous.  The  superiority  of  this  city  in  that  respect  is  recog- 
nized in  America  by  the  large  number  of  men  and  women  who  go 
there  every  year  for  the  study  of  art.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore, 
that  Paris  should  be  distinguished  the  world  over  for  its  beauty  as  a 
city.  The  wide  streets,  the  beautiful  parks  with  their  fountains  and 
statues,  and  the  fine  public  buildings  and  old  royal  palaces,  are  won- 
derfully attractive.  Even  the  dwelling  houses  are  in  harmony,  for  it 
is  required  by  law  that  new  buildings  must  harmonize  with  those 
near  by.     Therefore  one  seldom  sees  an  unattractive  house  in  Paris. 

One  of  the  old  palaces,  known  as  The  Louvre,  is  the  most  noted  art 
gallery  in  the  world.     It  contains  thousands  of  works  of  art. 

Among  the  many  interesting  suburbs  of  Paris  is  Versailles,  where 
there  is  another  palace  that  was  erected  in  the  days  of  royalty.  It  is  now 
mainly  used  as  a  museum,  and  scores  of  the  large  rooms  are  decorated 


892  JKUROPM 

with  the  finest  of  paintings.  It  is  among  such  treasures  that  the  students 
of  art  spend  much  of  their  time ;  and  it  is  partly  because  of  the  beautiful 
surroundings  that  many  foreigners  reside  permanently  in  Paris. 

Manufactures  of  Paris.  —  Like  other  great  cities,  Paris  has  too  many 
industries  to  be  specially  identified  with  any  particular  one.  Yet  the 
superior  taste  of  the  Parisians  has  led  them  to  pay  especial  attention  to 
the  manufacture  of  articles  which  combine  utility  with  beauty,  such  as 
jewelry,  furniture,  gloves,  fashionable  shoes,  etc.  The  Sevres  porcelain 
is  made  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  and  both  this  and  the  Limoges  ware, 
manufactured  at  Limoges,  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty. 

Commerce  of  Paris.  —  Although  so  far  inland,  Paris  ships  more 
goods  by  water  than  any  other  French  city.  The  extensive  canal 
connections  have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  361).  Vast  sums  have 
been  spent  in  dredging  the  lower  Seine,  so  that  the  depth  of  water 
between  Rouen  and  Paris  now  exceeds  ten  feet.  Small  vessels  can 
proceed  directly  to  Paris,  but  larger  ships  transfer  their  goods  at 
Havre  and  Rouen.  Besides  this,  the  chief  railways  of  France 
radiate  in  all  directions  from  Paris  (Fig.  338).  All  together,  there- 
fore, Paris  is  the  political,  artistic,  manufacturing,  and  commercial 
center  of  France. 

Other  Cities.  —  Havre,  which  is  almost  as  busy  a  harbor  as  Mar- 
seille, has  an  extensive  trade  in  coffee  from  Brazil,  and  in  wheat 
and  other  materials  from  the  United  States.  Another  important 
port  is  Bordeaux,  on  the  Garonne  River,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
grape-raising  district.  It  is  the  chief  port  for  the  export  of  French 
wines.  Locate  the  cities  previously  named  and  tell  for  what  each 
is  important.  Note  especially  Lyon,  the  center  of  the  great  silk 
industry  of  France. 

The  leading  seaport  of  France  on  the  Mediterranean  is  Mar- 
seille, located  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone.  The  delta  of  the  Rhone 
is  too  marshy  for  a  city,  and  Marseille  occupies  the  nearest  point 
where  there  is  a  good  harbor  and  where  other  conditions  are  favorable 
for  a  town.  For  many  centuries  the  Rhone  valley  was  the  principal 
gateway  from  the  Mediterranean  to  much  of  Europe.  One  route  leads 
to  the  Seine  valley,  and  thence  to  Paris  (p.  361),  northern  France, 
and  Belgium.  Another  enters  Switzerland  through  Lake  Geneva, 
out  of  which  the  Rhone  flows  ;  and  still  a  third  route  leads,  through 
an  opening  in  the  mountains,  into  the  Rhine  valley  and  Germany. 

Commerce  of  France.  —  Notwithstanding  the  great  amount  of 
internal  commerce  on  the  numerous  rivers,  canals,  and  railways, 
and  notwithstanding:  the   extensive   foreigfn   trade,  France   is  not 


TRANCE  868 

a  great  maritime  nation  like  the  United  Kingdom.  In  fact,  her 
merchant  marine  is  only  one  tenth  as  large  as  that  of  the  British 
Isles  and  three  fifths  that  of  Norway.  This  is  not  entirely  because 
of  lack  of  acquaintance  with  the  sea,  for  there  are  more  French  than 
British  fishermen.  The  small  number  of  good  harbors,  and  the  fre- 
quent and  destructive  wars  during  the  last  century,  are  among  the 
reasons  why  France  depends  so  largely  upon  other  nations,  as  upon 
British  and  Norwegians,  for  vessels  to  carry  her  goods.  Why  is  it 
safer  for  her  to  be  thus  dependent  than  for  Great  Britain  ? 

Colonies  (Fig.  354).  —  On  the  other  hand,  France  has  been  extensively 
engaged  in  exploration.  You  will  remember  that  the  French  formerly 
had  extensive  possessions  in  North  America.  Where  were  they  ?  Where 
are  her  present  possessions  in  the  New  World  ? 

In  Asia,  France  holds  a  part  of  Indo-China  and  a  very  small  bit  of 
India ;  and  she  has  numerous  islands  in  different  portions  of  the  world 
(Fig.  354).     But  her  most  important  colonies  are  in  Africa,  as  follows : 

(1)  Algeria  and  Tunis,  across  the  Mediterranean ;  (2)  a  vast  area  south  of 
these  countries,  including  a  large  part  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  the  Sudan, 
the  upper  Niger,  and  the  country  north  of  the  Kongo  Kiver ;  and  (3)  the 
large  island  of  Madagascar,  east  of  southern  Africa. 

Review  Questions.—  (1)  Tell  about  the  early  inhabitants ;  (2)  the  influence 
of  the  boundary  line  for  unity;  (3)  the  government;  (4)  the  physiography  and 
climate.  (5)  What  are  the  principal  farm  products  ?  (6)  Which  of  these  have 
been  found  in  Great  Britain  ?  (7)  Which  have  not  been  found  there  ?  Why  ? 
(8)  Tell  about  the  mineral  products.  (9)  Give  reasons  for  the  extensive  manu^ 
facturing.  (10)  Tell  about  the  woolen  manufactures.  (11)  Cotton  manufactures. 
(12)  Tell  about  silk  and  silk  manufacturing.  (13)  What  about  other  manufac- 
tures ?  (14)  Tell  about  Paris ;  its  size ;  location ;  artistic  attractions ;  manufactures ; 
commerce.  (15)  Tell  about :  (a)  Havre,  (h)  Bordeaux,  (c)  Lyon.  (16)  What  are 
the  reasons  for  the  location  of  Marseille  ?  For  what  is  it  important  ?  (17)  What 
is  there  peculiar  about  the  commerce  of  France  ?     (18)  Tell  about  the  colonies. 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  What  is  the  name  of  the  present  President  of  France  ? 

(2)  Give  reasons  why  one  river,  as  the  Loire,  might  be  much  more  subject  to  over- 
flows than  another,  as  the  Seine.  (3)  Examine  Figure  306  to  see  if  the  glacier 
reached  into  any  part  of  France  during  the  Glacial  Period.  (4)  Raise  a  silkworm 
from  the  egg.  (5)  Examine  a  oocoon  and  see  if  you  can  unravel  some  of  its  thread. 
(6)  Also  unravel  a  piece  of  silk  goods  and  examine  the  threads.  (7)  What  influ- 
ence on  the  commerce  of  Marseille  has  the  construction  of  railway  tunnels  through 
the  Alps  probably  had  ?  (8)  The  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal  ?  Why  ?  (9)  See 
if  you  can  find  any  porcelain  ware  from  Sevres  or  Limoges.  (10)  What  changes 
might  be  brought  about  in  your  locality  if  the  people  there  prided  themselves 
greatly  on  the  beauty  of  the  streets,  houses,  etc.,  as  the  Parisians  do?  (11)  What 
pictures  of  fine  statuary  have  you  seen?  (12)  Find  the  names  of  some  of  the  great 
French  painters. 

For  Rbfbr»noe8,  see  Teac1nr*s  Book. 


V.     SPAIN  AND   PORTUGAL 

Map  Questions  (Fig.  337).  —  (1)  What  other  cities  in  the  world  are  in 
about  the  same  latitude  as  Madrid?  (2)  Compare  the  area  of  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula with  that  of  France  (Appendix,  p  ii).  (3)  Compare  the  populations  (Ap- 
pendix, p.  ii).  (4)  Compare  the  directions  taken  by  the  rivers.  (5)  Judging 
from  the  map,  what  would  you  expect  as  to  the  number  of  good  harbors? 
(6)  What  has  been  stated  about  the  temperature  and  rainfall  in  Spain?  (pp.  321 
and  323.)     (7)  What  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  belong  to  Spain  ? 

People  and  Government.  —  Spain  and  Portugal  at  one  time  had 
much  the  same  rank  among  nations  as  is  now  held  by  Great  Britain. 
Name  countries  that  they  controlled.  Mention  some  noted  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  explorers.  Now,  however,  both  Spain  and  Portugal 
are  classed  among  the  weaker  nations  of  Europe. 

The  mountainous  character  of  the  peninsula  has  been  one  impor- 
tant cause  of  the  decline  of  Spain  and  Portugal.     The  various  races 


Fig.  345. 

The  Alhambra,  one  of  the  last  strongholds  of  the  Moors,  —Mohammedans  who  once 
conquered  and  occupied  Spain. 

on  the  peninsula,  cut  off  from  one  another  by  table-lands  and  moun- 
tain ranges,  have  never  been  fairly  blended  into  one  people.  For 
centuries  they  were  divided  into  small,  independent  kingdoms  having 
different  l&isguages.     Just  before  the  discovery  of  America,  however, 

804 


SPAIN  AND  POBTUGAL  865 

most  of  these  states  were  brought  under  one  rule  by  the  marriage  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ;  and  later  even  Portugal  was  joined  to  Spain. 

But  Portugal,  which  is  partly  separated  from  Spain  by  deep 
gorges  and  canyons,  soon  broke  away.  Also  Andorra^  a  tiny 
country  in  the  Pyrenees,  was  never  fully  conquered  and  is  still 
independent;  and  the  union  of  some  of  the  others  has  been  by 
force  rather  than  by  choice.  At  present  the  parts  of  Spain  are 
held  together  under  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
Portugal. 

Physiography  and  Climate. — The  key  to  many  important  facts 
about  Spain  and  Portugal  is  found  in  the  extensive  elevation  of  the 
land.  On  the  northern  boundary  stand  the  Pyrenees,  continued  on 
the  west  by  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  while  in  the  extreme  south 
are  the  lofty  Sierra  Nevada  ranges.  Between  these  two  systems  is 
a  broad  plateau,  from  two  to  three  thousand  feet  in  elevation,  with 
numerous  short,  broken  mountain  ranges. 

In  the  Ebro  valley  on  the  northeast  and  the  Guadalquivir  (mean- 
ing Great  River)  valley  on  the  southwest  there  are  lowlands.  Point 
to  these  rivers  on  the  map.  The  only  other  extensive  lowland  is  a 
narrow  strip  near  the  sea,  which  reaches  most  of  the  distance  around 
the  peninsula.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  surface,  therefore,  is 
made  up  of  plateaus  and  mountains. 

This  elevated  surface  has  been  instrumental,  in  the  first  place,  in 
preventing  Spain  from  becoming  a  great  thoroughfare  for  the  trans- 
portation of  goods.  The  position  of  the  peninsula,  between  the  two 
busiest  seas  of  the  world,  and  between  Africa  and  central  Europe, 
suggests  that  it  might  be  a  valuable  route  for  commerce.  But  the 
highlands  separate,  rather  than  unite,  these  regions. 

The  highlands  have  an  important  influence  also  on  the  climate. 
Owing  to  the  elevation  the  interior  has  cold  winters,  though  the 
summers  are  hot  ;  and  because  of  the  fringe  of  mountains,  the  rain- 
fall is  light  everywhere  except  near  the  northwestern  coast,  where 
the  vapor  is  condensed  in  rising  over  the  slopes  (Fig.  310).  The 
southern  portion  of  Spain,  like  Lower  California,  being  in  the  horse 
latitudes  (p.  248),  is  so  arid  that  agriculture  without  irrigation  is 
impossible. 

There  are  several  other  effects  produced  by  the  highlands.  In  the  first 
place,  the  rivers  are  unnavigable ;  for  in  descending  from  the  arid  plateau 
to  the  coastal  plains  their  courses  are  rapid  and  their  volume  slight.  Be- 
sides that,  most  of  them  have  cut  such  deep,  narrow  valleys,  like  that  of 


866  EUROPE 

our  Colorado  Canyon,  that  they  are  not  only  useless  for  irrigation  but  are 
even  a  great  hindrance  to  communication.  The  Guadalquivir,  which  has 
a  wide  valley  and  which  vessels  are  able  to  ascend  as  far  as  Sevillk,  is 
the  principal  exception. 

Since  the  interior  is  so  arid  and  rugged,  it  must  have  little  timber,  little 
agriculture,  few  people,  and  few  roads,  railways,  and  canals.  With  one  or 
two  exceptions,  therefore,  the  chief  towns  are  to  be  found  along  the  coast. 

Agriculture  and  Grazing.  —  In  one  respect  the  elevation  of  the 
land  is  an  advantage,  because  it  insures  great  variety  of  climate  and 
hence  many  kinds  of  farm  products.  What  countries  of  South 
America  does  this  condition  call  to  mind  ? 

We  may  expect  grazing  in  the  uplands  and  among  the  mountains, 
as  in  similar  rugged  and  arid  regions  elsewhere.      Name  some  of 

them.  Spain  is  noted  for 
the  excellent  grade  of  its 
sheep  and  mules.  There 
are  also  many  cattle,  espe- 
cially in  the  rainy  north- 
west ;  but  the  fact  that  so 
much  of  the  country  is 
arid  explains  why  there 
are  many  more  sheep  and 
goats  than  cattle.     The 

Fig.  346. 

sheep  often  wander  about 

A  sheep  pasture  at  the  Convent  of  Palos  in  Spain.  .      r,      ■,  f   ,         ,  i  i 

in  nocks  oi  ten  thousand 

under  the  care  of  a  number  of  shepherds  and  their  dogs.  In  sum- 
mer they  feed  among  the  mountains,  but  in  winter  they  are  driven 
down  to  the  more  protected  lowlands  for  shelter. 

Wheat  is  the  most  common  crop  in  Spain,  since  it  requires  com- 
paratively little  rain;  but  there  is  far  less  than  might  be,  since  so 
many  of  the  Spaniards  lack  energy  and  enterprise. 

In  many  of  the  valleys  where  irrigation  is  possible,  and  especially  on 
the  lowlands  along  the  coast,  the  farmers  are  more  progressive  and  pros- 
perous. Barley,  rye,  and  corn  are  raised  in  addition  to  wheat,  and  these 
are  among  the  staple  foods  of  the  people.  Quantities  of  grapes  are  also 
grov/n  in  Spain  and  Portugal ;  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula 
the  bark  of  the  cork  oak  is  a  source  of  income  to  both  countries. 

The  arid  southeastern  coasu  is  wonderfully  productive.  One  reason  is 
the  warm  climate,  due  to  the  iiiflnence  of  the  Mediterranean;  another  is 
the  number  of  mountain  streams,  which,  though  useless  for  navigation,  are 
extrenxely  valuable  for  irrigation.     Some  of  the  products  of  this  section, 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL  867 

besides  wheat  and  corn,  are  cotton,  grapes,  olives,  figs,  dates,  oranges, 
lemons,  and  rice.     Several  crops  of  some  products  may  be  raised  in  a  year. 

Mining.  —  Spain  is  remarkably  rich  in  minerals.  Lead  and  silver 
are  mined  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir,  and  along  the 
southeastern  coast.  Some  distance  northeast  of  Seville  a  large 
quantity  of  quicksilver,  or  mercury,  is  obtained;  and  northwest  of 


Fig.  347. 
A  wooden-wheeled  ox  cart,  to  illustrate  the  backwardness  of  the  Spaniards. 

Seville,  and  in  southern  Portugal,  are  some  noted  copper  mines. 
Coal  and  iron  ore  are  found  in  several  parts  of  the  peninsula,  but  the 
largest  output  of  each  occurs  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Cantabrian 
Mountains.  Spain  produces  more  quicksilver  than  any  other  coun- 
try, and  is  exceeded  only  by  the  United  States  in  t-he  output  of 
copper  and  lead. 

Here,  however,  as  in  other  industries,  the  character  of  the  people  prevents 
proper  development  of  the  resources.  Much  of  the  benefit  from  the  mines  is 
due  to  the  capital  and  enterprise  of  foreigners  ;  the  English  and  French  are 
in  control  of  the  copper  mines,  and  the  Kothschilds  own  the  quicksilver. 

Manufacturing.  —  From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  is  apparent  that 
manufacturing  cannot  flourish.  This  fact  is  all  the  more  evident  when  we 
consider  that  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  Spaniards,  and  three  fourths  of 
the  Portuguese,  cannot  read.  Thus,  although  they  have  coal  beds,  much 
of  their  iron  ore,  instead  of  being  smelted  at  home,  is  shipped  to  the  coal 
fields  of  Swansea  in  Wales  to  be  smelted.  In  some  places,  however,  as  will 
be  seen  in  our  study  of  the  cities,  there  is  manufacturing  of  certain  kinds. 

Principal  Cities  of  Spain.  —  Madrid,  the  metropolis  and  capital  of 
Spain,  has  over  a  half  million  inhabitants;  but  unlike  most  other  large 
cities  so  far  studied,  it  is  not  an  important  manufacturing  center. 
Why  not  ?  The  explanation  of  its  size  is  found  in  its  central  loca- 
tion, and  the  fact  that  it  is  the  seat  of  the  government.    In  crossing  the 


368 


EUROPE 


peninsula  to  connect  the  coastal  cities,  all  the  principal  railway  lines 
converge  at  this  point,  and  thus  Madrid  has  become  the  intellectual 
and  political  center  of  the  country. 

To  some  extent,  Madrid,  with  its  wide  streets,  magnificent  royal  palace, 
and  one  of  the  finest  art  galleries  in  the  world,  recalls  the  attractions 
of  Paris.  But  one  of  its  most  frequented  places  is  an  enormous  building 
which  seats  many  thousands  and  which  is  used  for  bull  fighting.  In 
its  indulgence  in  this  brutal  sport  the  city  bears  no  resemblance  to  Paris ; 
nor  is  there  any  resemblance  in  its  surroundings.     From  the  streets  of 

Madrid  one  looks  across  the 
country  for  miles  and  miles, 
seeing  not  a  tree  nor  fence 
nor  house;  only  the  weeds 
and  scattered  vegetation  of 
an  arid  waste. 

The  city  next  in  impor- 
tance upon  the  highlands 
of  Spain  is  Granada, 
the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Moors.  To  this  point 
among  the  mountains,  at 
the  intersection  of  the  best 
routes  of  travel  from  east 
to  west,  and  from  north 
to  south,  these  people  withdrew.  Here  they  maintained  themselves 
for  two  hundred  years  and  developed  a  city  of  four  hundred  thousand 
population.  At  present,  Granada  contains  less  than  one  fourth  as 
many  inhabitants,  and  its  principal  attraction  is  the  Moorish  palace, 
or  Alhambra  (Fig.  345),  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  Moorish  archi- 
tecture in  existence. 

On  the  lowlands  west  of  Granada  are  Seville  and  Cadiz,  both  flour- 
ishing cities  at  the  time  when  vast  stores  of  plunder  were  being  brought 
from  the  Spanish  colonies  in  the  New  World.  Cadiz  is  now  a  fortified 
naval  harbor ;  and  Seville  is  recovering  a  degree  of  her  former  commer- 
cial importance.  One  tobacco  factory  in  Seville  employs  about  five  thou- 
sand women  in  making  cigars  and  cigarettes. 

Q-ihraltar^  a  steep  hill,  with  bold  cliffs  rising  on  nearly  all  sides, 
and  with  a  town  at  its  base,  has  belonged  to  England  since  1704. 
This  rock  hill  (Fig.  349)  is,  perhaps,  the  strongest  fortification  in 
the  world,  and  guards  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean.  Why 
should  the  English  especially  want  such  a  stronghold  there  ? 


Fig.  348. 
A  Spanish  bull  fight. 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 


369 


Malaga  grapes  serve  to  remind  us  of  the  coastal  city  by  that  name,  and 
of  the  products  about  it.     It  has  one  of  the  warmest  climates  in  Europe. 

Valencia  and  Barcelona  are  the  leading  seaports  of  Spain. 
The  region  about  the  former  is  a  beautiful  garden,  much  like 
southern  California,  which  it  resembles  also  in  products.  Name 
some  of  the  products.  In  addition,  rice  is  grown  on  the  lowlands 
near  the  coast.  Barcelona,  the  second  Spanish  city  in  size,  is 
the  principal  seaport  and  an  important  textile  manufacturing  center 
as  well. 

On  the  whole  Spain  is  poorly  provided  with  harbors ;  and  while 
the  majority  of  the  people  dwell  near  the  coast,  and  many  engage  in 
fishing,  they  share  little  at  present  in  international  commerce. 


Fig.  349. 

The  rock  of  Gibraltar,  showing  the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  connects  it  with  the 

mainland. 

Colonies  of  Spain.  —  The  only  remnants  now  left  to  Spain  of  her  once 
magnificent  foreign  possessions  are  for  the  most  part  in  Africa.  These 
include  a  few  small  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Morocco ;  a  portion  of  the 
western  coast  of  Sahara,  having  little  value ;  and  a  few  small  islands  in 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  The  Canary  Islands,  west  of  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  and  the  Balearic  Isles  in  the  Mediterranean  also  belong  to  Spain. 


Principal  Cities  and  Colonies  of  Portugal.  —  Lisbon  and  Oporto 
are  the  chief  cities  of  Portugal.  The  former,  the  capital  and 
metropolis,  lying  on  a  broad  bay  where  the  Tagus  River  enters  the 
sea,  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  existence.  With  its  white 
houses,  its  cathedrals  and  palaces,  —  all  partly  buried  in  trees  on 


370 


EUBOPE 


the  hillsides  surrounding  the  harbor,  —  it  vies  in  beauty  with  the 
most  attractive  cities  in  the  world. 

The  misfortunes  of  Lisbon  have  been  many.  It  has  suffered  from 
sieges,  plagues,  and  earthquakes.  The  most  terrible  catastrophe  happened 
in  1755,  when  an  earthquake,  followed  by  fire,  destroyed  most  of  the 
houses  and  a  large  part  of  the  population. 

Oporto  gives  the  name  to  Port  wine.  The  lower  part  of  the  Douro 
valley  is  one  of  the  richest  wine  districts  in  Europe,  and  Oporto,  like 
Bordeaux,  is  an  important  point  for  its  export. 

Portugal,  like  Spain,  has  lost  much  of  her  foreign  territory.  The 
Azores  Islands,  far  to  the  west  in  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Madeira  Islands, 


Fia.  350. 
The  harbor  and  city  of  Oporto.    Describe  the  situation  of  the  city. 

to  the  southwest,  are  a  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  Cape  Verde  Islands,  a 
volcanic  group  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  are  dependencies.  Portugal  also  has 
large  possessions  on  the  mainland  of  Africa  and  smaller  ones  in  Asia. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  people  and  government  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  (2)  Describe  the  highlands  of  the  peninsula.  (3)  Mention 
several  consequences  of  this  elevated  condition  of  the  land.  (4)  Tell  about  agri- 
culture and  grazing.  (5)  Tell  about  the  mining.  (6)  What  can  you  say  about 
manufacturing  ?  (7)  Give  the  main  facts  about  the  following  cities  :  (a)  Madrid 
(&)  Granada,  (c)  Seville,  (d)  Cadiz,  (e)  Malaga,  (/)  Valencia,  (g)  Barcelona. 
(8)  For  what  is  Gibraltar  noted  ?  (9)  What  about  the  colonies  of  Spain?  (10)  Tell 
about  (a)  Lisbon,  (&)  Oporto.  (11)  What  about  the  colonies  of  Portugal? 
(12)  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  About  what  portion  of  the  boundary  line  between  Spain 
and  Portugal  is  formed  by  rivers  ?  (2)  What  must  be  the  influence  of  railways 
upon  the  old-fashioned  methods  of  farming  in  the  interior?  (3)  Recall  the 
Spaniards*  treatment  of  the  Incas  in  South  America. 

For  RErxRENCSs,  see  Teacher* $  Book, 


bio.  odi. 

Some  of  the  few  wild  animals  of  Europe.  Domestic  animals  are  abundant,  including  the 
reindeer  of  the  tundras.  Even  the  bear  is  tamed  and  exhibited.  Have  you  ever  seen 
one  of  these  European  bears  performing  on  the  street  ? 


tn 


sn 


^  c  S      « 


VI.     NORWAY,    SWEDEN,   AND   DENMARK 

(For  Map  Questions,  see  Map,  Fig.  353.) 

People.  —  The  people  of  these  three  countries  have  long  been 
more  or  less  united,  for  the  well-settled  southern  portions  of  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  are  not  separated  by  any  natural  barrier,  while 
only  a  narrow,  shallow  sea  separates  Scandinavia  from  Denmark. 
Being  descended  from  a  common  stock,  and  at  times  having  a  single 
government,  they  have  many  interests  in  common.  The  written 
language  of  the  Norwegians  and  Danes  is  still  the  same,  and  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  until  recently  were  united  under  one  king,  although 
they  are  now  entirely  independent  of  each  other.  Denmark  has 
always  been  independent,  and,  like  Norway  and  Sweden,  it  is  a  limited 
monarchy.     Norway  and  Sweden  were  once  a  part  of  Denmark. 

These  people  have  been  closely  connected  with  our  own  history,  for 
they  made  some  of  the  early  invasions  and  settlements  in  Great  Britain, 
and  are  thereby  to  be  numbered  among  our  ancestors.  Their  daring  sea- 
men reached  Greenland,  by  way  of  Iceland,  and  discovered  America  nearly 
five  hundred  years  before  Columbus  approached  its  shores.  In  the  present 
century  they  have  migrated  to  the  United  States  by  thousands,  and  Lave 
chosen  homes  in  many  states,  but  particularly  in  Minnesota,  Illinois,  and 
Wisconsin. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  There  are  only  about  one  fourth  as 
many  inhabitants  in  these  three  countries  together  as  there  are  in 
the  British  Isles;  yet  in  spite  of  frequent  European  wars,  they  have 
preserved  their  independence  through  many  centuries.  This  has 
been  due  in  part  to  their  peculiar  position.  The  only  land  approach 
to  Scandinavia  is  by  way  of  Lapland  in  Russia,  which  is  so  far  north 
that  it  is  very  cold.  Thus  the  peninsula  is  almost  as  isolated  from 
other  nations  as  is  Great  Britain. 

Denmark,  on  the  other  hand,  is  partly  connected  with  Germany. 
However,  the  most  important  parts  of  Denmark,  the  islands,  are 
completely  separated  by  water.  These  islands  and  the  Danish  penin- 
sula (Fig.  375)  are  the  higher  portions  of  a  lowland  that  were 
left  projecting  above  the  water  when  sinking  of  the  land  changed 

378 


374 


EUROPE 


the  Baltic  valley  to  a  shallow  sea  (p.  319).  Standing  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Baltic,  they  guard  the  approaches  to  this  inland  sea, 
and  naturally  Germany,  Russia,  and  other  nations  have  long  coveted 

them.  But  as  neither  of 
the  Great  Powers  was  will- 
ing that  one  of  the  others 
should  hold  them,  little 
Denmark  has  been  allowed 
to  continue  its  independent 
existence. 

The  rugged  surface  and 
severe  climate  of  Scandinavia 
have  also  served  as  a  protec- 
tion against  invaders.  From 
its  southern  to  its  northern 
end  the  peninsula  is  moun- 
tainous. It  is  an  ancient 
mountain  land  (p.  317),  much 
worn,  and  cut  by  deep  stream 
valleys.  While  some  peaks 
reach  an  elevation  of  six  to 
eight  thousand  feet,  most  of 
them  are  lower  and  of  so 
nearly  the  same  height  that 
the  upland  resembles  a  pla- 
teau when  viewed  across  the 
mountain  crests.  The  boun- 
dary between  Norway  and  Sweden  follows  the  divide  between  the  east 
and  west  flowing  streams ;  and  since  this  divide  is  near  the  western  side 
of  the  peninsula,  those  streams  which  flow  in  that  direction  are  made 
shorter.  Therefore,  in  all  but  the  southern  part,  Norway  is  a  narrow, 
mountainous  region  crossed  by  short  streams  flowing  in  deep,  steep-sided 
valleys  (Fig.  355). 

Agricultural  Districts.  —  The  mountainous  surface  and  cold  cli- 
mate are  unfavorable  to  agriculture,  although  the  warm  ocean  waters 
(p.  321)  exert  an  enormous  influence  here,  as  in  the  British  Isles. 
In  rising  over  the  mountains,  the  westerly  winds  supply  abundant 
rain  and  snow,  and  it  is  the  latter  that  causes  the  numerous  glaciers. 

Since  the  slope  on  the  eastern  side  is  much  the  longer,  Sweden 
has  extensive  lowlands  throughout  its  length.  But  these  lowlands 
are  so  far  north,  and  so  protected  from  the  influence  of  the  sea,  that 
in  all  but  the  southern  part  agriculture  is  of  little  importance. 


Fig.  355. 

A  Norwegian  fjord  with  steep  cliffs  rising  from  the 
very  water's  edge. 


NOBWAT,  SWEDEN,  AND  DENUABK 


876 


Although  Denmark  is  free  from  mountains,  the  northern  and 
western  portion  of  the  Danish  peninsula  (called  Jutland)  is  a  sandy 
waste,  so  that  only  the  islands  and  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
peninsula  are  very  productive. 

In  these  three  countries,  therefore,  there  is  a  comparatively  small 
area  that  is  valuable  for  agriculture,  and  the  sections  lie  near 
together ;  namely,  in  southern  Norway  and  Sweden  and  in  eastern 
Denmark. 

Industries  and  Cities  of  Norway.  —  Since  less  than  four  thou- 
sand (out  of  a  total  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand) 
square  miles  in  Norway  have  a  soil  and  climate  adapted  to  agriculture 
or  pasturage,  the  amount  of  stock  and  grain  produced  is  small.    There- 


FiG.  356. 
Bergen,  Norway,  with  its  deep,  narrow  fjord  harbor. 


fore,  much  meat,  flour,  and  other  food  must  be  imported.  Also,  while 
there  are  some  silver  and  copper  mines,  coal  is  entirely  lacking,  be- 
cause the  rocks  were  formed  before  the  Coal  Period.  Manufacturing, 
therefore,  is  little  developed.  Even  the  fine  water  power  is  little 
used,  because  raw  products  for  manufacturing  are  not  abundant. 

On  what,  then,  do  the  two  million  inhabitants  depend  for  a  liv- 
ing? They  have  two  valuable  resources,  —  lumber  and  fish.  More 
than  one  fifth  of  the  country  is  forest-covered,  —  pines  being  most 
common,  —  and  lumber,   wooden  goods,  and  paper  are  the   most 


376 


EUROPE 


important  exports.  As  in  Maine,  the  rapidly  flowing  rivers  are  of 
use  in  moving  the  logs  from  the  forest,  and  also  in  supplying  power 
for  the  sawmills  and  planing  mills. 

Fish  abound  on  the  shallow  banks  along  the  irregular  western 
coast,  especially  codfish  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  far  northern 
Lofoden  Islands.  The  North  Sea  with  its  many  fish  is  also  close  at 
hand,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  with  its  seals  and  whales.     Over  a  hun- 


FiG.  357. 

North  Cape,  the  northern  point  in  Norway.    The  summer  sun  is  shining  here  at  midnight, 
because  the  cape  is  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 


dred  thousand  Norwegians  are  engaged  in  the  fishing  industry. 
Along  the  fjords  every  family  owns  a  boat,  and  knows  how  to  make 
as  well  as  use  one.  While  the  men  are  at 'sea  the  women  work  the 
small  farms  or  garden  patches. 

The  abundance  of  lumber  and  the  love  for  the  sea,  developed 
through  centuries  of  experience  in  navigating  the  deep  fjords  and 
in  fishing,  have  given  rise  to  a  third  great  industry,  that  of  carrying 
goods  for  other  nations.  The  timber  for  wooden  vessels  is  easily 
supplied,  and  this  small  Norwegian  nation  has  at  present  a  greater 
nwmber  of  freight  vessels  than  any  other  European  country  except 
the  British  Isks. 


NORWAY,   SWEDEN  J  AND  DENMARK 


877 


These  facts  help  to  explain  why  the  Norwegian  towns  are  found 
along  the  coast.  Indeed,  it  is  rare  to  find  even  a  village  in  the 
interior.  The  two  principal  cities  are  Christian! A,  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  and  Bergen  (Fig.  356).  The  former  is  situated  at  the 
head  of  a  long,  narrow,  sunken  valley,  or  fjord,  which  makes  an 
excellent  harbor,  and  the  city  is  the  principal  port  and  distributing 
center  for  southern  Norway.  Bergen  is  the  important  fishing  port, 
as  Aberdeen  is  in  Scotland  and  Gloucester  in  Massachusetts. 

Scenery  on  the  Western  Coast.  —  As  in  the  British  Isles  and  north- 
eastern North  America,  the  sinking  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  has 
caused  the  sea  to  enter  the  river  valleys,  forming  many  bays,  peninsulas, 
and  islands.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  fully  ten  thousand  islands 
along  the  coast  of  Norway.  Owing  to  the  fact  that,  before  the  sinking 
took  place,  the  river  valleys  were  deeply  cut  in  hard  rock,  the  bays  are 
usually  long,  narrow,  and  deep  fjords  (Fig.  355). 

Some  of  the  fjords  extend  fully  ninety  miles  inland,  and  swollen 
streams  from  the  mountains  frequently  plunge,  for  a  fall  of  a  thousand 
feet  or  more,  over  the  vertical  cliffs  which  bound  the  fjords.  The  cliffs  are 
often  only  barren  rock ;  but  here  and  there,  where  the  slopes  are  not  too 


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:'  ^k.-ii^-'^mm^m 

N*T 

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iwipt^''^^^^ 

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Fig.  358. 

Haramerfest,  Norway,  far  within  the  Arctic  circle  where  the  sun  does  not  set  from 
May  13  to  July  29.  This  town  is  the  nearest  to  the  pole  of  any  in  the  world  except- 
ing Upernivik  in  Greenland,  where  all  but  a  few  of  the  inhabitants  are  Eskimos. 


steep,  green  forests  cover  the  surface;  glaciers  are  frequently  in  sight; 
and  occasionally,  upon  a  level  patch,  a  hamlet  of  fishermen's  homes 
(Fig.  309)  is  seen.  These  hamlets  are  usually  upon  the  deltas  of  small 
streams  and  are  connect^^d  with  the  outer  world,  and  with  other  villages, 


378 


EUBOPM 


by  no  road  or  pathway  except  the  waters  of  the  fjord.  So  isolated  are 
these  hamlets  that  each  man  must  learn  to  do  many  things,  —  farm,  fish, 
tan  his  leather,  make  his  shoes,  build  his  boat,  his  house,  etc. 

Industries  and  Cities  of  Sweden.  —  Agriculture  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry of  Sweden,  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  fertile  lowlands.  The 
former  glacier  (Fig.  306)  swept  rocks  and  soil  down  from  the  western 
highlands,  giving  to  the  southern  part  of  the  country  much  the  same 
appearance  as  New  England.  Oats  are  raised  in  most  abundance, 
but  rye,  barley,  wheat,  and  potatoes  are  also  produced.  One  reason 
why  these  products  can  mature  here  is  the  absence  of  cool  summer 
winds  from  the  ocean ;  another  is  the  great  length  of  the  summer 
days  in  this  far  northern  latitude.  Much  live  stock  is  also  raised, 
and  butter  is  exported  to  Great  Britain. 

However,  nearly  one  half  the  area  of  Sweden  is  covered  with 
forest,  and  lumber  is  by  far  the  greatest  article  of  export,  as  in 


Fig.  359. 
The  royal  palace  at  Stockholm. 

Norway.  Indeed,  these  two  countries  supply  much  of  the  lumber 
needed  in  western  Europe.  Their  wood  is  especially  valued  because 
of  its  hardness  and  durability  —  qualities  that  are  due  to  the  closeness 
of  the  annual  rings  caused  by  the  shortness  of  the  summer  season. 

Mining  is  the  third  important  industry.  There  are  silver,  lead, 
zinc,  and  copper  mines.  Some  coal  is  found  in  the  southern  end,  and 
the  country  has  long  been  noted  for  its  excellent  iron  ore.    But  since 


yORWAT,  SWEDEN,  AND  DENMARK  879 

the  principal  iron  mines  are  located  far  from  the  coal,  there  is  little 
iron  manufacturing  in  Sweden.  However,  as  in  portions  of  the  Lake 
Superior  district  of  the  United  States,  some  of  the  iron  ore  is  smelted 
by  the  use  of  charcoal,  and  some  by  coal  mined  in  Sweden  or  brought 
from  other  countries.  The  Swedish  iron  is  of  such  excellent  quality 
that  it  is  eagerly  sought  where  the  highest  grade  of  steel  tools  is 
manufactured,  as  in  Sheffield,  England. 

Sweden  possesses  excellent  water  power  for  various  kinds  of 
manufacturing,  and  in  recent  years  the  numerous  rivers  have  begun 
to  be  utilized,  so  that  manufacturing  is  making  rapid  progress  there. 

The  two  principal  cities — Stockholm,  the  capital,  and  Gothen- 
burg —  are  on  the  coast ;  but  there  are  other  small  seaports  and 
inland  mining  towns.  Stockholm  is  famous  for  its  fine  palaces, 
public  buildings,  museums,  and  commercial  establishments.  The 
situation  of  this  city  is  one  of  marvelous  beauty,  on  an  excel- 
lent harbor;  but  unfortunately  it  is  blocked  with  ice  for  four 
months  each  year.  Owing  to  the  numerous  lakes  and  to  canals, 
it  is  connected  by  water,  as  well  as  by  rail,  with  the  chief  points 
in  a  populous  region,  and  is  therefore  the  principal  distributing 
center  for  imports.  Gothenburg,  the  chief  center  for  exports, 
possesses  the  important  advantage  that  its  harbor  is  seldom  frozen 
over.  It  is  connected  with  Stockholm  by  railway  as  well  as  by 
lake  and  canal.  Much  of  the  distance  between  these  two  cities  is 
occupied  by  lakes. 

The  principal  foreign  trade  of  both  Norway  and  Sweden  is  with  Great 
Britain.  Give  reasons  for  this.  What  must  be  the  main  articles  of  import 
and  export  ?  Next  to  Great  Britain  comes  Germany.  Can  you  suggest 
reasons  for  this  ? 

Industries  and  Cities  of  Denmark.  —  There  is  neither  coal  nor 
metal  in  the  rocks  of  Denmark.  The  only  mineral  product  of  value 
is  clay,  well  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  which  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  As  in  Ireland,  the  lack  of  coal  for  fuel  is  partially 
met  by  peat  from  the  bogs  and  swamps  of  the  northern  and  western 
parts. 

Farming,  especially  dairying,  is  the  chief  industry,  and  butter 
constitutes  one  half  the  exports  of  Denmark.  The  laws  of  the  nation 
discourage  large  farms,  so  that  each  farmer,  by  carefully  cultivating 
a  small  patch  of  land,  as  in  Belgium,  obtains  the  most  that  it  can 
yield. 


380 


EUROPE 


The  nearness  to  good  fishing  banks  has  naturally  made  fishing 
important ;  and  this,  together  with  the  influence  of  island  life,  has 
created  such  a  love  for  the  sea  that  large  numbers  of  Danes  serve  as 
sailors  on  British  and  other  foreign  vessels. 

As  in  the  case  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  the  principal  foreign  trade  of 
Denmark  is  with  Great  Britain.  Why  ?  What  goods  may  well  be 
exchanged  ?  One  might  theref ol'e  expect  an  important  seaport  on 
the  western  coast ;  but  that  coast  is  so  low,  and  so  shut  in  by  sand 


1 

'<i  ^ 

''■-'.     "t 

t ^^ 

Mm-W^ 

w 

1* 

S^^^^^HH 

Fig.  360. 
A  view  in  Copenhageiio 

bars,  that  good  harbors  are  lacking.  In  fact,  the  only  harbor  in  all 
Denmark  that  admits  large  vessels  is  Copenhagen  (merchants' 
harbor)  on  Seeland  Island.  Since  this  point  guards  the  entrance  to 
the  Baltic  Sea,  there  is  a  double  reason  why  Copenhagen  is  the 
principal  city  of  Denmark.  The  fact  that  it  is  the  capital  also 
increases  its  importance.     It  ranks  nearly  with  Cleveland  in  size. 


Colonies  of  Denmark.  —  The  Danes,  even  more  than  the  Norwegians, 
have  been  daring  seamen  and  explorers  of  foreign  lands.  Although  some 
of  their  possessions  have  been  lost,  Greenland  and  the  Faroe  Islands  are 
still  Danish  colonies,  and  Iceland  is  a  Danish  dependency.     In  the  Faroes, 


NORWAY,   SWEDEN,  AND  DENMARK  881 

consisting  of  a  score  of  small  islands  north  of  Scotland,  the  principal  prod- 
ucts are  sheep  and  fish.  Why  might  you  expect  these  two  particularly  ? 
Iceland^  which  is  larger  than  Ireland,  and  more  than  twice  the  size 
of  Denmark,  is  an  island  of  volcanic  origin.  Over  a  hundred  volcanoes 
are  found  there,  twenty-five  of  which  have  been  in  eruption  during  his- 
toric times.  Mt.  Hecla  is  one  of  the  most  noted  of  these.  Destructive 
earthquakes  are  common,  and  there  are  also  geysers  similar  to  those  found 
in  our  Yellowstone  National  Park.  The  interior  is  a  desert  plateau,  for 
the  most  part  covered  with  snow,  and  hence  uninhabited.  Near  the  sea, 
however,  there  is  some  good  pasture  land,  and  the  people  are  principally 
engaged  in  raising  cattle  and  sheep.  Fishing  is  important,  and  down 
from  the  eider  duck  is  a  valuable  product. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  What  about  the  people  of  these  three  countries  ? 

(2)  Describe  briefly  the  surface  of  Norway ;  of  Sweden  ;  of  Denmark.  (3)  Where 
are  the  principal  farming  sections?  (4)  Tell  about  agriculture  in  Norway. 
(5)  Why  is  there  little  manufacturing  there?  (6)  What  is  the  principal  export? 
Why  ?  (7)  What  about  fishing  ?  (8)  Give  reasons  for  the  large  merchant  fleet 
of  Norway.  (9)  Tell  about  the  cities  of  Norway.  (10)  Describe  the  scenery  on 
the  w^estern  coast.  (11)  Tell  about  Sweden  :  principal  industry ;  forests  ;  mining  ; 
manufacturing;  principal  cities.  (12)  What  are  the  industries  in  Denmark? 
(13)  Tell  about  Copenhagen.  (14)  Tell  about  the  foreign  territory  of  Denmark. 
(15)  What  are  the  important  facts  about  Iceland  ?  (16)  Give  reasons  why  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark  have  their  principal  foreign  trade  with  the  British  Isles. 

Suggestions. —  (1)  Why  should  the  telephone  prove  of  special  importance 
among  the  fishing  towns  scattered  along  the  coast  of  Norway  ?  (2)  By  use  of  a 
globe   explain  why  the  sun   does  not  set  for  weeks  at  a  time  at  Hammerfest. 

(3)  AVhy  is  whale  and  seal  fishing  important  as  a  means  of  furnishing  light 
during  the  long  night  of  this  northern  land?  (4)  What  do  you  know  about  the 
life  of  the  Laplanders  ?  (5)  Why  should  Bergen  be  one  of  the  rainiest  cities  of 
Europe?  (6)  Give  reasons  why  harbors  on  the  Baltic  should  be  blocked  by  ice 
much  oftener  than  those  on  the  western  coast  of  Norway.  (7)  Can  you  give  a 
reason  why  so  many  matches  should  be  made  in  Sweden  ?  (8)  Give  all  the 
reasons  you  can  to  explain  why  the  Norsemen  should  have  become  such  daring 
navigators.  (9)  Hans  Christian  Andersen  was  a  native  of  Denmark.  What 
stories  do  you  know  that  were  written  by  him?  (10)  Read  and  retell  stories 
of  the  Norse  gods  in  old-time  mythology. 


VII.     RUSSIA 

Map  Questions  (Fig.  353).  —  (1)  About  how  much  of  Europe  is  included 
in  Russia?  (2)  What  part  of  the  distance  from  pole  to  equator  is  included? 
(3)  What  does  this  suggest  concerning  temperature  and  rainfall  ?  (4)  How  much 
of  the  boundary  of  Russia  is  seacoast?  (5)  Name  the  seas  which  border  it. 
(6)  Name  the  mountains  on  or  near  the  border.  (7)  What  portion  of  Russia  is 
occupied  by  plains?  (Fig.  304.)  (8)  In  what  directions  do  the  large  rivers  flow? 
Name  the  three  longest.  (9)  What  peculiar  fact  do  you  notice  about  the  Caspian 
Sea?  (10)  Find  Poland,  Finland,  and  Lapland.  (11)  What  parts  of  Asia  are  in 
the  Russian  Empire  ?     (Fig.  403.) 

Size  and  Position.  —  Russia  in  Europe  is  larger  than  all  the  other 
European  countries  together ;  and  the  Russian  Empire,  which 
includes  Siberia  and  other  lands  in  Asia,  occupies  about  one  sixth  of 
all  the  land  upon  the  globe.  The  empire  extends  from  the  Baltic  on 
the  west  to  the  Pacific  on  the  east,  and  within  its  borders  is  included 
a  great  variety  of  climate. 

In  spite  of  its  vast  extent,  the  development  of  Russia  is  greatly 
hindered  by  the  lack  of  good  harbors.  In  this  respect  it  contrasts 
strongly  with  the  United  States.  To  be  sure,  the  sea  forms  a  large 
portion  of  the  Russian  boundary;  but  Archangel,  the  principal 
port  on  the  White  Sea,  is  ice-bound  for  nine  months,  and  the  Baltic 
ports  for  four  or  five  months  each  year.  Besides  this,  the  entrances 
to  the  Baltic  and  Black  seas  are  guarded  by  foreign  nations.  Why 
are  the  Caspian  ports  of  little  use  ? 

Physiography.  —  Most  of  the  large  rivers  in  western  Europe  have 
their  sources  in  the  mountains.  Give  examples  (Fig.  304).  It  is 
not  so,  however,  in  Russia,  where  the  central  divide  is  a  low,  hilly 
region  less  than  twelve  hundred  feet  above  sea  level  at  its  highest 
point.  Aside  from  the  mountains  along  the  border  this  is  the 
highest  part  of  Russia.  How  does  it  compare  in  altitude  with  the 
highest  point  in  flat  Holland  ?     (p.  346.) 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  most  of  Russia  is  an 
almost  level  plain  (Fig.  304).  Since  several  of  the  rivers  are  very 
long,  what  must  be  true  as  to  the  velocity  of  their  currents  ? 
What  must  follow  as  to  their  value  for  navigation  ?  What  about 
the  ease  of  canal  construction  ? 

882 


RUSSIA 


388 


In  southeastern  Russia,  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  lofty  Caucasus 
Mountains  (Fig.  307),  in  which  one  of  the  jjeaks,  the  extinct  volcano 
Mt.  Elbruz,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe.  But,  at  the  very- 
base  of  these  mountains,  bordering  the  Caspian  Sea,  are  broad  plains 
which  in  places  are  even  lower  than  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  into  which  the  longest  river  of  Europe  pours  its 
floods,  is  the  largest  inland  sea  in  the  world.  In  spite  of  the  enormous 
volume  of  water  which  enters  these  inland  seas,  the  evaporation  in  that 
dry  climate  has  caused  them  so  to  shrink  in  size  that  neither  the  Caspian 
nor  the  Aral  Sea  (Fig.  403)  is  now  connected  with  the  ocean.  The  sur- 
face of  the  Caspian  is  eighty-five  feet  below  sea  level,  and  by  evaporation 
it  is  steadily  growing  smaller  and  Salter,  leaving  broad,  salt-covered  plains 
round  about  it. 

Climate.  —  The  influence  of  distance  from  the  ocean  upon  tem- 
perature and  rainfall  is  well  illustrated  in  Russia.  Moscow  is  in  the 
same  latitude  as  Edinburgh ;  but  while  at  Edinburgh  the  average 
temperature  for  January  is  37°,  at  Moscow  it  is  nearly  25°  colder. 


Fig.  361. 
A  Laplander's  hut  in  northwestern  Russia. 


884 


EUROPE 


Notice  (Fig.  268)  which  summer  isotherms  pass  nearest  to  these  two 
cities.  It  was  the  severity  of  the  Russian  winter  that  caused 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  to  lose  nearly  the  whole  of  a  great  army  when 
he  was  invading  that  country  in  1812.  What  effect  must  this  cold 
have  upon  navigation  of  the  rivers  ? 

Extreme  drought,  as  well  as  extremes  of  temperature,  are  found 
in  parts  of  eastern  Russia.  Although  the  rain-bearing  winds  meet 
with  no  barrier  in  sweeping  over  such  level  land,  they  nevertheless 


Fig.  362. 
Laplanders  dressed  in  furs. 

deposit  SO  much  moisture  on  the  countries  of  western  Europe  that  no 
part  of  Russia  has  heavy  rainfall ;  and  the  eastern  part  averages  less 
than  twenty  inches  per  year  (Fig.  310).  Since  this  amount  is  barely 
sufficient  fop  agriculture,  the  crops  suffer,  and  famines  follow  in 
especially  dry  seasons.  Southeastern  Russia  is  altogether  too  arid 
for  farming,  being  not  only  far  from  the  ocean,  but  so  far  south  that 
it  is  not  greatly  influenced  by  the  prevailing  westerlies. 

People  and  Government.  —  The  plains  of  Russia  have  offered  no 
better  barrier  to  the  inroads  of  invaders  than  to  the  winds.  We 
therefore  find  many  kinds  of  people  united  under  Russian  rule.     Most 


ItUSSiA 


386 


of  these  belong  to  the  white  race,  but  to  a  different  division  from 
the  German  and  British  peoples.  The  Russians  are  Slavs^  while  the 
inhabitants  of  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  the  British  Isles  are  of 
the  Teutonic  division.  But  Russia  also  contains  many  Jews,  Teutons, 
and  other  people,  including  the  Lapps  (Figs.  361  and  362),  who  are 
classed  with  the  Mongolian  race.  All  together  not  less  than  forty 
languages  are  spoken  within  the  realm. 


In  former  centuries,  while  other  parts  of  Europe  were  advancing  in 
civilization,  Russia  was  being  raided  by  outsiders  and  its  progress  retarded 
by  conquest.  The  country  was  so  remote  from  western  Europe  that  it 
felt  little  influence  from  the  growing  civilization  of  the  west.  Moreover, 
approach  by  water  was  then  difficult,  because  formerly  the  only  Russian 
seacoast  was  on  the 
Arctic.  It  was  not 
until  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great 
(1682-1725)  that 
Russia  began  to 
learn  the  lessous  of 
civilization  from 
other  European 
nations 

The  Emperor, 
or  Czar,  is  an  ab- 
solute monarch 
"  whose  will  alone 
is  law."  On  purely 
local  matters,  how- 
ever, the  peasants 
have  a  voice . 
Those  of  a  locality  meet  in  a  Mir,  or  assembly,  to  discuss  mat- 
ters of  common  interest  and  to  elect  officers  from  their  number, 
somewhat  as  is  done  in  town-meetings  in  the  United  States. 
Naturally,  in  this  day  of  popular  government,  many  of  the  people 
are  dissatisfied,  and  owing  to  this  unrest,  the  Czar  has  granted  a 
form  of  representation  to  the  people  in  a  national  body  called  the 
Duma.  Some  of  the  most  highly  educated  among  the  Russians  have 
joined  with  the  peasants  and  industrial  classes  in  the  movement 
toward  a  constitution. 

Lumbering.  —  Nearly  a  third  of  European  Russia  is  forest-covered, 


Fig.  363. 

A  fisherman's  house  in  Finland.  Fishing  is  a  very  important 
industry  in  Russian  waters ;  and  there  is  a  great  demand  for 
fish,  owing  to  the  numher  of  fast  days  kept  by  the  Greek 
Church,  to  which  the  majority  of  Russians  belong. 


88«  EUROPE 

and  the  timber  resources,  as  in  Norway  (p.  378),  are  among  the 
greatest  of  the  country.  This  forest  supplies  not  only  lumber, 
but  pulp  for  paper  and  bark  for  tanning.  Many  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals live  in  the  forest,  as  was  formerly  the  case  in  other  parts  of 
Europe. 

Farming  and  Grazing.  —  Both  in  the  forest  region  and  on  the  open 
plains  to  the  south  there  is  extensive  agriculture.  Fully  nine  tenths 
of  the  people  are  supported  by  farming,  which  makes  Russia  pri- 
marily an  agricultural  country. 

The  most  important  crops  are  the  grains,  especially  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats.  Russia  ranks  next  to  the  United  States  among 
grain-producing  countries,  and  wheat  is  one  of  its  principal  exports. 
Another  important  crop  is  hay ;  and  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  and  flax 
are  extensively  raised  in  the  cool  temperate  climate.  In  southern 
Russia  the  warm  climate  permits  the  culture  of  grapes,  tobacco, 
and  corn  ;  and  south  of  the  Caucasus  even  olives  and  cotton  are 
produced. 

On  the  grazing  lands  of  the  arid  steppes,  which  resemble  our  west- 
ern plains,  many  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  raised.  The  nomadic 
herdsmen,  such  as  the  Cossacks^  still  retain  many  of  the  customs  of 
the  shepherds  and  herders  of  Bible  times,  who  dwelt  farther  south 
in  Asia. 

Mineral  Wealth.  —  Some  parts  of  Russia  contain  mineral  deposits 
of  great  value.  In  the  Ural  Mountains,  for  example,  are  gold,  silver, 
copper,  platinum,  and  other  metals,  besides  some  precious  stones  and 
graphite,  or  "  black  lead,"  which  is  used  in  lead  pencils. 

Coal  and  iron  are  mined  in  several  parts  of  Russia  (Fig.  305), 
and  each  year  the  amount  is  increasing.  As  in  Great  Britain,  some 
of  the  iron  ore  is  so  near  coal  and  limestone  that  it  is  easily 
smelted. 

Russia  ranks  next  to  the  United  States  in  the  production  of  petroleum. 
This  oil  is  found  in  several  places,  especially  at  Baku  on  the  Caspian. 
But  since  its  quality  is  not  as  good  as  that  of  the  United  States,  it  is  less 
useful  for  kerosene.  Large  quantities  are  therefore  consumed  as  fuel  for 
steamers  on  the  Caspian  and  Volga. 

Manufacturing.  —  Although  numerous  factories  have  recently  been 
established  in  Russia,  about  six  sevenths  of  the  manufacturing  population 
carry  on  the  work  by  hand  in  their  own  homes.  What  a  contrast  to  the 
United  States  and  to  Great  Britain  ! 


RUSSIA 


ttr 


Principal  Cities  and  their  Commerce 


Moscow  and  Nijni  Novgorod.  —  The  former  isolation  of  Russia 
from  other  countries  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  principal 
cities  were  for  a  long  time  situated  far  in  the  interior.  For  example, 
Moscow,  the  second  city  in  size  and  one  of  the  chief  manufacturing 
centers,  and  once  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  located  almost  in  the 
center  of  the  realm,  as  Madrid  is  in  Spain.  The  point  was  well 
chosen,  because  rivers,  which  canals  could  easily  connect,  diverge 
from  this  section  in  all  directions.  By  the  introduction  of  railways 
the  advantage  of  this  location  was  so  increased  that  Moscow  is 
now  the  great  railway  center  of  Russia,  as  Madrid  is  of  Spain, 
and  for  the  same  reason.  State  this  reason  (p.  367).  But  the 
land  about  the  city,  unlike  that  around  Madrid,  is  fertile  and 
densely  populated. 

Not  only  is  Moscow  adorned  with  royal  palaces  and  government 
buildings,  but  it  is  the  holy  city  of  Russia,  and  therefore  has  numerous 
convents  and  churches 
(Fig.  364).  The  Univer- 
sity of  Moscow,  the  largest 
in  the  empire,  is  attended 
by  about  four  thousand 
students. 

East  of  Moscow,  on  the 
Volga  River,  is  Nijni  Nov- 
gorod, renowned  for  its  an- 
nual fairs.  A  great  trade 
center  is  needed  somewhere 
In  this  region  for  the  ex- 
change of  Asiatic  and  of 
Russian  products,  and  this 
city  is  suitable  for  the  pur- 
pose because  of  its  superior 
water  connections. 

Point  them  out  (Map, 
Fig.  353).  The  fairs,  held  in 
August  and  September,  are 
the  greatest  in  Europe,  and 
attract  as  many  as  two  hun- 
dred thousand  strangers  an- 
nually.    In  a  single  season 

goods  are  exchanged  to  the  value  of  nearly  $200,000,000,  and  prices  are 
fixed  on  crops  and  other  materials  for  the  coming  year.  Why  could  not 
such  a  center  for  trade  be  better  located  upon  the  Caspian  Sea  ? 

27— A  G 


tiH^. 

^^■U^.SMgM 

^^^^^^H                         '  '^>- '  In  ifl 

^HJ'       L?l!'l3 

i 

m 

f-i-iaikSj--  -a%;p 

wmb&<.:- 

W^m 

'  ^^si^^^HH 

Greek  Church  at  Moscow. 


888 


SUROFS 


St.  Petersburg.  — While  the  two  cities  just  described  are  very  old, 
their  position  in  the  interior  is  not  well  adapted  for  communication 
with  distant  nations.  It  was  this  fact  which  led  Peter  the  Great,  in 
1703,  to  found  St.  Petersburg  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland. 
The  site  selected  is  very  marshy,  and  the  climate  is  cold,  foggy,  and 
unhealthful.  Moreover,  the  arm  of  the  sea  on  which  the  city  is  situ- 
ated is  so  shallow 
that  a  ship  canal 
twenty  miles  in 
length  has  been 
necessary  to  con- 
nect it  with  the 
deeper  water  far- 
ther west.  In  ad- 
dition, the  harbor 
is  ice-bound  for 
more  than  four 
months  each  year. 
Yet,  in  spite  of 
all  these  disadvan- 
tages, St.  Peters- 
burg is  already  the  largest  city  in  Russia,  and  the  fifth  in  size  in 
Europe — facts  that  show  how  much  such  a  seaport  was  needed. 
It  is  also  one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  cities,  having  especially 
wide  streets,  splendid  public  buildings,  and  fine  residences.  More 
goods  are  shipped  by  this  route  than  from  any  other  Baltic  port. 
Riga,  to  the  southwest,  has  about  half  as  much  shipping. 

Odessa.  —  Odessa,  another  important  port,  was  founded  a  little 
over  a  century  ago,  when  Russia  obtained  possession  of  the  north- 
western coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  Since  the  harbor  is  rarely  frozen 
over  for  more  than  a  few  days,  it  possesses  a  great  advantage  over 
St.  Petersburg,  which  it  equals  in  its  shipping  trade.  Besides  being 
the  chief  outlet  for  the  vast  grain  trade  of  southern  Russia,  and  the 
principal  port  on  the  Black  Sea,  Odessa  is  an  important  flour-milling 
center^  like  Minneapolis. 

Warsaw  and  Lodz.  —  Thus  far  the  Russians  have  found  no  opportunity 
to  obtain  possession  of  Constantinople,  although  they  have,  no  doubt,  felt 
many  a  yearning  in  that  direction.  Why  ?  But  their  progress  in  the  west 
has  not  been  confined  to  the  establishment  of  seaports.  They  have  extended 
their  territory  in  various  directions,  one  of  their  most  important  acquisi- 


Fia.  365, 
St.  Isaac's  Church  in  St.  Petersburg. 


RUSSIA  389 

tions  being  a  large  part  of  Poland,  in  which  are  situated  two  of  the  lead- 
ing cities  of  Kussia,  —  Warsaw  and  Lodz.  The  former  is  a  center  for 
the  railways  that  connect  Russia  with  western  Europe,  and  the  latter  is 
an  important  manufacturing  center.  Much  coal  and  iron  are  mined  in 
this  vicinity. 

Finland,  whose  capital  is  Helsingfors,  although  a  part  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  has  a  measure  of  independence.  There  is  a  parliament  which 
makes  laws,  but  the  Czar  has  the  right  of  veto.  Unlike  the  Russians, 
most  of  whom  belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  the  Finns  are  mostly  Protes- 
tants, belonging  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  Mistreatment  by  the  Russian 
government  has  recently  led  to  the  migration  of  many  Finns  and  Poles 
to  the  United  States.  The  policy  of  the  Russians  is  to  destroy  the 
nationality  of  the  people. 

Russia  owns  Siberia  also,  but  the  ambitious  plans  of  the  govern- 
ment in  regard  to  the  great  Asiatic  Empire  led  the  nation  into  a 
disastrous  war  with  Japan  ending  in  the  utter  rout  of  the  Russians. 
Thus  the  nation's  field  of  operations  in  the  east  was  greatly  limited. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  size  of  the  Russian  Empire. 
(2)  What  can  you  say  about  its  position  with  reference  to  the  sea?  (3)  Describe 
its  surface  features.     (4)    Tell  about  the  rivers.     (5)  Tell  about  the  Caspian  Sea. 

(6)  How  does  the  climate  vary  ?  (7)  Tell  about  the  people.  (8)  What  about  the 
government?  (9)  Tell  about  lumbering.  (10)  What  are  the  principal  farm 
products?  (11)  What  about  grazing?  (12)  What  mineral  products  are  found ? 
Where?  (13)  For  what  purpose  is  some  of  the  petroleum  used ?  (14)  What  is 
the  condition  of  manufacturing?  (15)  Tell  about  each  of  the  cities  :  (a)  Moscow 
—  location,  comparison  with  Madrid,  importance  ;  (b)  Nijni  Novgorod  —  location, 
fairs;  (c)  St.  Petersburg  —  location,  surroundings,  importance;  (d)  Odessa  — 
location,  importance  ;  (e)  Warsaw ;  (/)  Lodz.  (16)  What  are  the  conditions  in 
Finland  ?     (17)  What  about  Russia's  future  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (I)  Compare  the  area  of  the  Caspian  Sea  with  that  of  Lake 
Superior.  (2)  Read  about  how  the  inhabitants  of  Moscow  burned  their  houses  in 
1812  rather  than  give  shelter  to  Napoleon's  army.  What  followed  ?  (3)  What 
must  be  some  of  the  difficulties  connected  with  building  good  roads  in  southern 
Russia  ?  (4)  What  did  Kosciusko,  the  Pole,  do  to  make  his  name  memorable  to 
Americans  ?  (5)  Have  you  read  the  story  of  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw  ?  If  so,  what 
can  you  tell  about  it  ?  (6)  Read  how  Peter  the  Great  wandered  through  European 
countries  as  a  common  workman,  in  order  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  Western  ideas. 

(7)  Make  a  sketch  map  of  Russia,  with  principal  rivers,  cities,  etc.  (8)  Compare 
the  area  and  population  of  Russia  and  the  United  States.  Also  the  degrees  of 
latitude  included  in  the  two  countries.  (9)  Where  else  besides  on  the  Atlantic, 
Pacific,  and  Mediterranean  does  Russia  desire  an  opening  to  the  sea  ? 

For  Reference,  see  Teacher's  Book. 


VIII.     GERMAN   EMPIRE 

Map  Questions  (Fig.  375).  —  (1)  Compare  the  latitude  of  Berlin  with  that  of 
London.  (2)  Of  New  York.  (3)  Estimate  the  greatest  length  of  Germany  from 
east  to  west.  From  north  to  south.  (4)  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the 
British  Isles?  Russia?  (5)  How  much  of  the  boundary  is  natural?  (6)  Point 
out  the  principal  rivers.  To  what  extent  do  they  correspond  in  general  direc- 
tion? (7)  Is  most  of  the  surface  plain  or  mountainous?  (Fig.  304.)  Where 
are  the  mountains  ?  (8)  What  facts  do  you  notice  about  the  coast  line  ?  (9)  Is 
the  North  Sea  or  the  Baltic  the  more  favorable  place  for  seaports  ?    Why  ? 

Extent  and  Position.  —  The  German  Empire  contains  nearly 
209,000  square  miles,  which  is  an  area  a  little  larger  than  France 
and  twice  the  size  of  Colorado.  But  it  has  about  60,000,000  inhab- 
itants, or  nearly  a  hundred  times  as  many  as  Colorado  and  21,000,000 
more  than  France. 

The  position  of  this  great  nation  offers  a  marked  contrast  to  that 
of  Great  Britain.  Only  about  one  third  of  its  boundary  is  water, 
while  its  frontier  comes  in  contact  with  seven  independent  countries, 
aside  from  Luxemburg.     What  are  their  names? 

The  location  of  the  British  Isles  is  regarded  as  favorable  for 
world  commerce,  inasmuch  as  densely  populated  Europe  lies  near 
at  hand  on  one  side,  while  the  far-away  New  World  is  on  the  other 
side.  The  situation  of  Germany  possesses  great  advantages,  also. 
Owing  to  her  central  location,  most  of  the  markets  of  the  continent 
are  at  her  very  doors,  while  two  of  her  principal  ports,  Hamburg 
and  Bremen,  face  Great  Britain  and  the  West.  On  the  map  (Fig. 
375)  find  some  of  the  large  cities  that  can  be  quickly  reached  from 
Germany.  In  these  days  of  railways  Germany's  central  position  is 
superior  to  that  of  England  for  European  trade. 

People  and  Government.  —  It  has  required  a  great  struggle,  which 
has  lasted  through  centuries,  to  bring  under  one  rule  the  various 
people  within  the  boundary  line  of  the  German  Empire.  For  cen- 
turies there  was,  at  best,  only  a  loose  confederation  to  hold  them 
together  ;  and  the  numerous  states  which  occupied  the  region  were 
often  at  war  with  one  another  and  with  surrounding  nations.     Their 


GERMAN  EMPIRE 


891 


condition  was,  in  some  respects,  similar  to  our  own  during  and  im- 
mediately following  the  Revolutionary  War.  There  was,  however, 
one  important  fact  to  their  disadvantage  —  their  meddlesome  neigh- 
bors helped  to  intensify  the  quarrels  that  arose  among  them. 

During  the  War  of  1866  Prussia  and  Austria,  the  principal  king- 
doms of  the  German  Confederation^  strove  with  each  other  for  the 
exclusive  leadership.  Prussia  proved  successful,  and  Austria  with- 
drew from  the  union.  In  1871  the  new  German  Umpire,  with  its 
present  boundaries,  was  established. 

All  together  there  are  twenty-six  states  within  the  Empire,  some 
of  them  being  kingdoms,  some  duchies,  and  some  merely  free  towns. 
The  smallest  of  all  is  the  city  of  Bremen,  occupying  only  ninety-nine 


Fig.  366. 

The  German  Reichstag,  corresponding  to  our  House  of  Representatives,  meets  in  this  build- 
ing, in  Berlin,  The  other  legislative  branch,  called  the  Bundesrath,  is  composed  of 
members  appointed  by  the  various  German  states. 


square  miles,  while  Prussia,  the  largest,  contains  more  than  one  half  of 
the  entire  empire,  and  in  1897  had  a  population  of  about  32,000,000. 
They  are  all  united  under  a  central  authority,  more  closely  and  less  inde- 
pendently than  our  states.  In  place  of  a  President  they  have  an  Em- 
peror (the  King  of  Prussia  being  by  law  the  German  Emperor),  and  their 


892  MUMOFM 

form  of  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy  (Fig.  366).  However, 
the  power  of  the  Emperor  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  British  King^ 
though  less  absolute  than  that  of  the  Russian  Czar. 

Defense.  —  The  Germans  in  a  war  with  France  in  1870  not  only 
defeated  the  French,  but  compelled  them  to  pay  a  large  sum  of 
money.  At  the  same  time  they  seized  the  French  territory  west  of 
the  Rhine,  called  Alsace-Lorraine,  in  which  Metz  and  Strassburg  are 
situated.  This  is  a  suggestion  of  the  way  in  which  much  of  Ger- 
many's irregular  frontier  line  has  been  determined.  To  a  great 
extent  mountains  form  the  southern  boundary,  and  water  the  north- 
ern ;  but  the  eastern  and  western  limits,  largely  decided  by  war,  do 
not  follow  any  natural  barrier.     Draw-  an  outline  map  of  Germany-. 

In  order  to  preserve  her  present  boundaries,  Germany  must  be 
prepared  to  defend  them  at  any  time.  This  need  calls  many  citizens 
to  an  occupation  which  we  have  not  thus  far  considered,  namely, 
that  oi  preparing  for  war. 

It  is  a  fact  that  each  of  the  great  European  nations  is  jealously  watch- 
ing the  other ;  and  as  no  one  of  them  knows  how  soon  a  dispute  may 
arise  with  its  neighbor,  each  maintains  a  large  and  thoroughly  equipped 
army.  The  object  of  each  is  to  be  so  dangerous  that  others  may  fear  to 
offend  or  attack  it ;  and  if  once  involved  in  war  to  come  off  victorious. 

For  such  reasons  all  able-bodied  young  men  in  Germany  are  required 
to  devote  usually  two  full  years  and  parts  of  several  succeeding  years  to 
active  military  training.  Most  of  them  enter  the  service  at  about  the  age 
of  twenty ;  as  there  are  about  four  hundred  thousand  males  arriving 
at  that  age  every  year,  one  can  obtain  some  idea  of  what  it  costs  ^,  Euro- 
pean nation  to  have  close  neighbors.  The  peace  footing  of  the  Grermaa 
army  is  almost  six  hundred  thousand  men,  which  is  larger  than  the  num- 
ber employed  in  all  the  mines  of  the  British  Isles.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  German  navy  calls  for  many  recruits.  As  all  these  men  are,  for  the 
time  being,  withdrawn  from  industrial  pursuits,  the  nation  loses  the  fruits 
of  their  labor  for  that  period.  Thus  the  productiveness  of  the  nation  is 
reduced. 

Extensive  fortifications  are  built  near  the  boundary,  as  at  Cologne, 
Metz,  and  Strassburg  on  the  French  side,  and  Konigsberg  and  Posen  near 
Russia.  They  are  also  numerous  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  great  interior 
cities,  and  at  strategic  points  here  and  there.  The  expense  of  these  forti- 
fications, and  the  vast  sums  required  to  keep  up  the  army  and  navy,  form 
a  heavy  drain  upon  the  nation. 

Germany  is  not  unlike  the  other  European  nations  in  these  respects. 
As  already  stated  (p.  343),  the  British,  having  no  immediate  neighbors, 
rely  mainly  upon  their  powerful  navy  for  defense.     But  every  one  of  the 


GERMAN  MMPIEM  c,':)c 

Great  Powers  is  calling  for  many  men,  and  expending  large  sums  of  money 
either  for  the  army  or  navy,  or  both.  In  fact,  preparation  for  war  is  one 
of  the  greatest  occupations  of  Europe  to-day. 

Physiography.  —  Germany  consists  of  two  quite  different  parts. 
The  southern  section  is  mainly  a  mountainous  region  of  ancient  date, 
and  is  therefore  worn  low,  like  the  mountains  of  Great  Britain  and 
New  England.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  plateau  from  one  to  two  thousand 
feet  in  height,  with  some  ranges,  like  the  Erzgebirge,  rising  high 
enough  to  be  commonly  classed  as  mountains.  Only  in  the  ex- 
treme south,  on  the  edge  of  the  Alps,  is  a  great  altitude  reached, 
one  peak  being  nearly  ten  thousand  feet  above  sea  level. 

Valuable  minerals  have  been  revealed  by  the  wearing  away  of 
these  ancient  mountains ;  indeed,  the  mineral  belt  of  southern  Bel- 
gium and  northeastern  France  is  but  a  continuation  of  the  highlands 
which  cross  southern  and  central  Germany. 

Northern  Germany  is  a  lowland,  broadening  toward  the  east 
until  it  merges  into  the  plains  of  Russia.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Holland  the  plain  is  very  low  and  flat  (Fig.  367)  ;  but  in  most 
places,  owing  to  the  irregular  deposits  left  by  the  Scandinavian 
glaciers,  it  is  rolling.  Elevations  in  this  part  of  Germany 
rarely  exceed  six  hundred  feet.     This  plain  is,  in  large   part,  in- 


FlG.  367. 

▲  f\%w  00  tb«  l«v«l  plain  of  North  GhirmaBj. 


394 


MWMOFM 


eluded  in  Prussia,  the  greatest  and  most  powerful  of  the  German 
kingdoms. 

Name  and  trace  the  courses  of  four  large  rivers  which  flow  northward. 
Which  is  the  most  important  ? 

Climate.  —  The   average   yearly  rainfall  is   about   twenty-eight 
inches,  decreasing  toward  the  east  to  about  twenty  inches  near  the 


Fig.  3G8. 

A  view  on  the  Rhine  at  Bingen.    Notice  the  opposite  bank,  where  the  earth  has  been  terraced 
so  that  even  the  hill  slope  may  be  used  for  vineyards. 


Russian  border.  That  these  figures  may  be  better  appreciated,  we 
may  recall  the  fact  that  the  average  rainfall  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  is  over  forty  inches. 

Note  the  number  of  degrees  of  latitude  included  in  Germany.  Never- 
theless, owing  to  the  difference  in  elevation,  the  southern  plateau  is  about 
as  cold  in  winter  as  the  northern  lowland.  In  summer,  however,  the 
southern  part  is  warmer  than  the  northern.  But  the  valleys  of  the  south, 
being  low  and  inclosed,  are  warmer  than  the  northern  plain  both  in  winter 
and  in  summer,  and  are  therefore  capable  of  producing  such  crops  as 
tobacco  and  grapes. 

The  increase  in  extremes  of  temperature  toward  the  east,  or  away 
from  the  ocean,  is  illustrated  on  the  coast.  The  North  Sea  is  almost  free 
from  ice,  while  the  Baltic  ports  are  frozen  over  for  a  time  j  and  the  farther 


OEItMAN  EMPIRE  395 

east  they  lie,  the  longer  their  trade  is  arrested  by  the  cold.     What  must 
be  some  of  the  results  of  this  fact  ? 

Forests.  —  That  the  mountains  of  Germany  are  low  enough  to  be 
well  wooded,  is  indicated  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  word  wald  (the 
German  for  wood)  in  the  mountain  names.  Where  the  soil  is  poor, 
as  in  the  stretches  of  sand  deposited  during  the  Ice  Age,  much  of 
the  lowland  is  also  wooded.  All  together  about  one  fourth  of  the 
surface  of  the  empire  is  covered  with  trees. 

The  tendency  of  the  German  people  to  useful  and  sensible  economy  is 
well  illustrated  in  their  treatment  of  the  woodlands.  Instead  of  wantonly 
devastating  them  by  fire  and  the  ax,  —  as  has  been  done  in  so  many  parts 
of  our  own  country,  —  they  maintain  an  excellent  system  of  forest  culture. 
Trees  are  planted  in  place  of  those  that  are  cut  for  timber,  these  are  given 
proper  care,  and  thus  the  woods  continue  to  be  abundant.  By  this  system, 
also,  forest  culture  becomes  profitable.  It  is  partly  due  to  the  encourage- 
ment received  from  the  success  in  Germany,  that  national  forests  have 
been  established  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  schools  of 
forestry  founded,  as  in  New  York,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  how  to 
care  properly  for  our  woods. 

Agriculture  and  Grazing.  —  On  the  whole,  Germany  has  not  a 
fertile  soil ;  but  the  farm  products  are  very  extensive,  because  the 
people  are  both  industrious  and  intelligent,  and  their  method  of  cul- 
tivating the  soil  is  excellent.  What  countries  may  well  be  contrasted 
with  them  in  this  respect? 

More  than  one  third  of  the  population  are  dependent  for  their 
living  upon  agriculture,  the  leading  industry  of  the  nation.  Ger- 
many is  one  of  the  most  important  grain-producing  countries  of 
Europe ;  but  here  rye  replaces  wheat  as  the  principal  grain.  Pota- 
toes, introduced  from  America,  are  raised  in  such  quantities  that,  like 
rye,  they  form  one  of  the  principal  foods.  These  two  crops  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  both  because  they  are  a  cheap  food,  and  because 
they  flourish  in  the  light  soil  and  cool  summer  climate,  characteristic 
of  so  much  of  Germany.  Sugar  beets,  hay,  oats,  and  barley  are  other 
important  crops  of  the  northern  plains,  while  in  the  Rhine  and  other 
warm,  sheltered  valleys  of  the  south,  hops,  tobacco,  and  grapes  are 
raised  in  large  quantities. 

Since  much  of  the  lowland  is  too  sandy  for  cultivation,  and  much  of 
the  highland  too  rugged,  it  is  not  surprising  that  one  sixth  of  all  the 
surface  consists  of  natural  pasture.     Cattle  for  beef  and  for  dairy  purposes 


396 


EUROPE 


are  kept  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  empire,  but  especially  in  the  damper 
climate  of  the  west. 

Mining.  —  Next  to  Great  Britain,  Germany  is  the  greatest  mining 
country  of  Europe ;  and,  as  in  the  United  Kingdom,  her  most  valu- 
able minerals,  coal  and  iron,  often  occur  in  the  same  region.  Ger- 
many and  Belgium  together 
produce  more  zinc  than  all 
the  rest  of  the  world ;  and 
nearly  half  the  silver  obtained 
in  Europe  is  mined  in  Ger- 
many. Much  lead  and  copper 
also  come  from  Germany. 

This  country  resembles  our 
own  in  the  wide  distribution  of 
its  coal  beds.  The  coal  fields 
that  were  found  in  Belgium  and 
northeastern  France  (p.  357)  ex- 
tend into  Germany  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Aachen  ;  and  from 
this  point  eastward  to  the  Rus- 
sian border  there  are  several 
important  coal  fields. 

There  are  also  immense  salt 
mines,  as   at  Stassfurt,  north- 
west of  Halle,  from  which  are 
obtained  not  only  table  salt,  but 
products   used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  soap,  in  dyeing,  bleach- 
ing,   glass    making,    and   calico 
printing.     The  Germans  employ 
thoroughly  scientific  methods  in  their  mining  work ;  and  it  is  from  them 
that  other  nations  have  learned  many  of  the  m>ethods  which  are  employed 
in  reducing  ores  to  metal. 

Manufacturing.  —  From  the  above  facts  we  may  expect  to  find 
Germany  a  great  manufacturing  country,  with  her  manufacturing 
centers  well  distributed.     Explain  why. 

About  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  upon  manufactur- 
ing, and  in  recent  years  Germany  has  so  advanced  in  this  industry 
that  she  now  ranks  next  to  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  quantity  and 
excellence  of  her  goods. 

Ihe  distribution  of  the  ooal  and  iron^ives  the  key  to  the  principal 


Fig.  369. 

Storks  at  Strassburg,  —  a  familiar  bird  in  Ger- 
many which  builds  nests  on  the  chimneys. 


GERMAN  EMPIRE  397 

centers  for  iron  manufacturing.  The  busiest  section  is  along  the 
Rhine,  in  the  vicinity  of  Cologne,  which  may  well  be  compared 
with  northern  England  in  the  extent  of  its  industries.  A  second 
center  is  about  Dresden  and  Chemnitz,  and  a  third  at  Breslau  in 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  empire.  As  in  other  countries  so 
far  studied,  the  textile  industries  are  best  developed  near  the  coal 
fields.  Therefore  the  sections  mentioned  above  are  distinguished 
for  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  factories  as  well  as  for  iron. 

The  extensive  forests  partly  account  for  a  third  occupation  of 
many  sections;  namely,  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  paper,  and 
other  articles  made  of  wood. 

The  map  (Fig.  375)  shows  no  cities  south  of  Breslau;  yet  a  busy 
manufacturing  center  exists  there.  The  explanation  is  that  the  people 
carry  on  this  work  largely  in  their  own  homes,  instead  of  in  factories. 
Living  in  a  hilly  country,  where  agriculture  is  not  very  profitable,  they 
spin  and  weave  the  flax  and  wool  raised  near  by.  They  also  make  lace  and 
carve  wood;  but,  although  villages  stretch  for  miles  along  the  valleys, 
there  are  no  large  towns. 

The  manufacture  of  spirituous  liquors  is  another  prominent  German 
industry.  A  portion  of  the  immense  potato  crop  is  made  into  spirits,  and 
also  some  of  the  beets.  But  beer,  in  which  barley  and  hops  are  used,  is 
the  common  beverage.  From  the  grapes  of  southern  Germany  much  wine 
is  manufactured,  though  not  nearly  so  much  as  in  France. 

For  a  long  time  nearly  all  sugar  was  obtained  from  sugar  cane,  although 
maple  trees  supplied  a  small  amount ;  but  German  chemists  found  a  means 
of  extracting  sugar  from  beets.  By  improving  the  process,  and  by  de- 
veloping the  beets  until  they  contained  more  sugar,  the  great  industries  of 
sugar-beet  raising,  and  the  refining  of  beet-root  sugar,  have  been  made 
possible.  Each  year  this  source  of  sugar  has  been  proving  a  more  formi- 
dable rival  to  sugar  cane,  until  now  a  large  part  of  the  sugar  consumed  in 
Europe,  and  much  of  that  used  in  North  America,  is  obtained  from 
sugar  beets.  One  important  reason  why  this  industry  has  thrived  is  that 
sugar  beets  grow  in  a  cool,  temperate  climate  where  population  is  dense 
and  markets  are  numerous. 

Formerly  Germany  had  to  rely  upon  foreigners  for  sugar ;  but  since 
the  development  of  this  industry,  beet  sugar  has  become  one  of  its  greatest 
exports.  Nevertheless,  the  population  is  so  dense  and  so  many  are  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing,  that,  like  the  British,  the  Germans  cannot  raise 
all  the  food  they  need.  Therefore  much  food,  such  as  wheat  and  meat,  as 
well  as  raw  materials  for  manufacture,  such  as  cotton,  wool,  and  silk, 
must  come  from  abroad. 

Germany's  Rapid  Advance. — No   European  country  in  the  last 


398  SUBOPX 

quarter  of  a  century  has  experienced  such  rapid  growth  as  Germany. 
For  example,  in  the  twenty-five  years  preceding  1895  her  increase 
in  population  was  over  11,000,000,  while  France  had  an  increase 
of  only  2,500,000.  The  empire  has  had  a  corresponding  gain  in 
wealth. 

Undoubtedly  the  strong  central  government  established  in  1871,  and 
with  it  the  laying  aside  of  the  petty  jealousies  that  paralyzed  industries, 
is  one  cause  of  this  advance.  But  there  are  many  other  causes,  of  which 
one  of  the  most  influential  is  education  and  the  encouragement  of  science. 
Every  German  child  is  forced  by  law  to  attend  school ;  and  careful  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  study  of  the  various  industries,  foreign  products,  lan- 
guages, etc.  In  the  higher  commercial  and  technical  schools  young 
men  obtain  excellent  preparation  for  various  kinds  of  business,  while 
in  many  other  countries  there  is  little  or  no  provision  for  such 
education. 

The  value  of  scientific  work  is  fully  recognized  and  encouraged  by  the 
government ;  and  that  such  encouragement  is  profitable  to  the  nation  is 
proved  by  the  wonderful  development  of  the  sugar  industry,  the  mines, 
and  the  factories.  Not  many  years  ago  much  of  the  manufacturing  was 
done  by  hand;  but  now  the  best  machinery  has  been  introduced,  and 
Germany  is  one  of  the  three  leading  manufacturing  nations  of  the  world. 
Name  the  other  two. 

Colonies  and  Emigrants.  —  The  recent  acquisition  of  foreign  territory  is 
an  indication  of  the  growth  of  Germany.  The  empire  is  now  in  possession 
of  extensive  areas  in  the  island  of  New  Guinea,  north  of  Australia,  and 
in  both  east  and  west  Africa,  as  well  as  smaller  colonies  elsewhere 
(Fig.  354). 

Many  Germans  have  emigrated  to  various  parts  of  the  New  World. 
Fully  five  million  emigrants  have  come  to  the  United  States  within  the 
last  seventy-five  years,  while  the  British  Isles  have  sent  us  not  quite  seven 
million.  Naturally  many  of  the  German  emigrants  to  other  countries 
have  kept  up  trade  with  their  fatherland,  and  have  thereby  increased  the 
commerce  of  Germany. 


Principal  Cities  and  their  Commerce 

After  the  preceding  statements,  it  may  not  be  surprising  to  learn 
that  the  leading  German  cities  have  experienced  as  rapid  a  growth 
as  those  of  America.  In  the  twenty  years  between  1870  and  1890, 
for  example,  Berlin  had  a  more  rapid  growth  than  New  York,  and 
added  as  many  actual  new  residents  as  Chicago.  In  1875  Boston  had 
almost  a  hundred  thousand  more  inhabitants  than  Hamburg;  but 


GERMAN  EMPIRE 


899 


now  Hamburg  has  two  hundred  thousand  more  than  Boston.  Other 
German  cities  have  increased,  and  are  still  increasing,  in  population 
at  much  the  same  rate. 

Berlin.  —  The  position  of  Berlin,  on  a  small  river  (Fig.  374)  on 
the  North  German  plain,  midway  between  the  coast  and  the  high- 
lands, may  not  at  first  seem  advantageous.  But  the  Oder  and  some 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  Elbe  approach  so  near  each  other  in  this 
section  that  they  have  easily  been  united  by  canal.  Thus  Berlin  has 
water  connection  with  both  Hamburg  and  Stettin,  as  well  as  with 


Fia.  370. 
The  Dresden  Art  Museum. 

all  parts  of  these  two  river  systems,  —  a  very  important  aid  in 
obtaining  fuel,  food,  etc.,  for  the  city.  Observe  also  (Fig.  375) 
that  Berlin  lies  on  the  direct  route  from  Hamburg  to  Breslau,  and 
from  Stettin  to  Leipzig,  and  that  other  large  cities  surround  it. 
It  is,  moreover,  on  the  route  of  several  great  European  railways,  and 
is  therefore  one  of  the  important  railway  centers  of  the  continent. 

With  such  excellent  connections,  by  water  and  by  rail,  Berlin  has 
naturally  become  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  cities.  Fully  half 
the  residents  are  supported  by  this  industry,  which  includes  brewing, 
the  manufacture  of  fancy  articles,  clothing,  machinery,  etc.     Besides 


400 


EUROPE 


being  the  capital  of  Prussia  and  of  the  German  Empire,  Berlin  is 
the  center  of  German  banking.  It  is  noted  for  its  art  and  music, 
and  for  its  great  university,  the  largest  in  the  empire.  There  are  a 
number  of  suburbs,  one  being  Potsdam  (Fig.  374),  the  German 
"  Versailles,"  in  which  are  located  several  royal  palaces. 

Interior  Cities  near  Berlin.  —  Among  the  cities  not  far  from  Berlin 
is  Leipzig,  the  fourth  largest  in  the  empire.  It  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  two  small  streams,  at  a  point  where  roads  from  the  high- 
land meet  those  from  the  lowland.  Formerly  it  was  a  center  for 
wagon  roads,  and  now  it  has  naturally  become  a  railway  center. 
Owing  to  its  favorable  position,  Leipzig  is,  next  to  Berlin,  the  most 
important  trade  center  of  Germany.  One  of  its  leading  articles  of 
commerce  is  fur.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  noted  university,  and  a  center 
for  the  German  book  trade. 

Dresden,  southeast  of  Leipzig,  is  noted  for  its  art  museum  (Fig. 


Fig.  371. 
A  castle  om  the  Rhine 


GERMAN  EMPIRE 


401 


370),  which  rivals  the  Louvre  of  Paris.  The  beautiful  Dresden 
china  is  made  in  this  vicinity,  and  in  recent  years  much  manufactur- 
ing has  developed,  for  Dresden  is  situated  on  a  navigable  river  and 
has  coal  near  at  hand.  It  is,  moreover,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  the 
most  densely  settled  German  state. 

Seaports.  —  Hamburg,  which  is  rapidly  growing  in  population,  is 
the  second  city  in  Germany  and  the  most  important  seaport  on  the 

continent.      The    reasons  

for  this  are  clear  when  it 
is  known  that  the  estuary 
of  the  Elbe  (Fig.  375) 
makes  an  excellent  har- 
bor, usually  free  from  ice, 
and  that  Germany  has 
an  extensive  foreign 
trade.  Name  some  articles 
which  that  port  probably 
receives  from  the  United 
States.  What  water  con- 
nections lias  Hamburg 
with  the  interior  ? 


Bremen  and  Stettin 
also  admit  large  vessels, 
and  are  the  chief  rivals 
of  Hamburg;  but  they  to- 
gether have  less  than  one 
half  as  much  commerce  as 
Hamburg.  In  what  respect 
are  they  less  favorably 
situated  for  commerce  than 
Hamburg  ? 

Name  other  Baltic  ports 
besides  Stettin.  Which  is  a 
natural  outlet  for  wheat  from 
Kussian  Poland  ?    Estimate 


Fig.  372. 

The  Cologne  Cathedral,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
Gothic  edifices  in  the  world,  was  begun  in  1248  and 
completed  in  1880. 


the  distance  saved  to  the  Baltic  ports  by  the  construction  of  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  canal,  which  is  sixty-one  miles  in  length. 


Cities  along  the  Rhine.  —  On  ascending  the  river  into  Germany 
we  come  to  the  great  manufacturing  region  already  mentioned 
(p.  397).      What  cities  are  there?     Cologne,  the  largrest,  with  a 


402 


EUROPE 


population  of  more  than  a  third  of  a  million,  is  on  the  river  bank. 
It  is  a  great  shipping  point,  since  railways  cross  the  river,  and  boats 
from  London  and  other  places  are  able  to  ascend  to  this  point. 

Elberfeld  and  Barmen  have  textile  manufactories ;  Essen  is  famous 
for  the  Krupp  steel  works;  Krefeld  is  an  important  silk  manufac- 
turing town ;  Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle  in  French)  manufactures  woolen 
cloth. 

Just  beyond  the  great  bend  in  the  Rhine  is  Frankfort,  on  a 
navigable  tributary,  the  Main,  along  which  lies  the  easiest  route  from 
the  Rhine  valley  to  the  Danube.     Since  the  railway  from  the  German 


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A  scene  in  Frankfort. 


plain  to  the  upper  Rhine  passes  Frankfort,  it  is  a  center  of  important 
trade  routes,  and  therefore  one  of  the  leading  trading  and  banking 
centers  in  western  Germany.  It  has  long  been  a  prominent  city  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  old  German  Confederation  (p.  390). 

Railways  to  the  Danube  pass  through  Munich,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Bavaria.  Although  so  far  to  the  south,  and  so  distant 
from  coal,  Munich  is  the  third  city  in  size  in  the  realm.  It  is  on  the 
trade  routes  from  Germany  to  Italy  and  to  Austria,  and  is  accord- 


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Fig.  375. 
Map  Questions:  Switzerland.  — (1)  What  countries  surround  Switzerland? 
(2)  From  wliich  cue  is  it  least  separated  by  mountains?  (3)  Wliat  large  rivers  ris* 
among  the  Alps ?  In  what  directions  do  they  flow?  (4)  Notice  the  lakes  among  the 
Alps.  (5)  How  does  the  area  of  Switzerland  compare  with  that  of  your  own  state? 
(6)  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for  so  small  a  nation  remaining  independent  in  th© 
midst  of  powerful  countries  ? 


SUGGESTIONS 


403 


ingly  an  important  railway  center.  Much  of  its  renown  is  due  to  its 
art  collections  and  its  art  industries,  such  as  work  in  bronze,  gold, 
silver,  glass  painting,  and  porcelain  manufacturing. 

North  of  Munich,  on  the  road  to  Berlin,  is  Nuremberg,  a  city 
widely  known  for  its  careful  preservation  of  the  old  art  and  architec- 
ture that  made  it  famous  in  former  centuries,  and  for  its  present 
manufacture  of  toys. 

Review  Questions.  —  Give  (1)  the  area  of  Germany ;   (2)  the  population ; 

(3)  the  boundaries.  (4)  What  advantage  does  Germany's  position  give  her  for 
European  trade  ?  Tell  about  (5)  the  early  condition ;  (6)  the  government ; 
(7)  preparation  for  war ;  (8)  physiography ;  (9)  rainfall ;  (10)  temperature ; 
(11)  forests;  (12)  agriculture ;  (13)  grazing;  (14)  mining ;  (15)  manufacturing. 
(16)  Give  some  of  the  causes  for  Germany's  recent  advance.  (17)  What  about 
the  growth  of  German  cities  ?  Tell  (18)  about  Berlin  ;  (19)  cities  near  Berlin  ; 
(20)  the  seaports.  (21)  What  about  cities  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  ? 
(22)  Give  reasons  for  tiie  importance  of  Munich. 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  People  often  assert  that  the  peace  of  Europe  is  preserved 
by  extensive  preparation  for  war;  in  what  sense  can  this  be  true?  (2)  What 
must  be  some  of  the  benefits  of  two  years  of  active  training  in  the  army,  aside 
from  preparation  for  war?  What  some  of  the  disadvantages?  What  relation  has 
this  to  emigration  ?     (3)  What  is  the  size  of  our  standing  army  ?     Why  so  smaU  ? 

(4)  Show  that  Germany  in  her  industries  resembles  Great  Britain,  while  contrast- 
ing with  Russia  and  Norway.  (5)  Find  out  something  about  Goethe,  Schiller, 
Humboldt,  Emperor  William  the  First,  Bismarck,  Von  Moltke,  Wagner,  and 
Schumann. 


Fig.  X. 

Caldera  in  the  Eifel  region  of  Germany.    This  is  a  region  of  extinct  volcanoes ;  but  they 
have  become  extinct  so  recently  that  lakes  itill  oooupj  their  crftterto 


Fig.  Y. 

A  deep,  narrow  gorge  in  the  Alps.  There  are  potholes  just  above  the  path  on  the  left, 
showing  that  the  stream  bottom  was  once  at  that  level.  This  gorge  is  being  rapidly 
deepened. 


IX.     SWITZERLAND 


Physiography  and  Climate.  —  This  is  a  very  mountainous  country 
(Figs.  375-379),  for  the  Jura  Mountains  are  on  the  northwestern 
border,  while  the  Alps  occupy  the  southern  half.  Between  these 
two  mountain  systems,  which  extend  northeast  and  southwest,  is  a 
low,  hilly  plateau,  from 
one  to  two  thousand  feet 
in  altitude.  About  one 
third  of  Switzerland  is  in- 
cluded in  the  plateau  belt. 
In  so  rugged  a  country  one 
would  not  expect  to  find 
a  large  population ;  yet 
Switzerland  is  almost  as 
densely  settled  as  France, 
and  much  more  so  than 
the  state  of  New  York. 

It  is  evident  that  the 
temperature  of  this  moun- 
tainous country  must  be 
low,  and  that  it  must  vary 
greatly  with  the  altitude. 
This  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  Alps,  at  whose  base 
are  found  chestnut  and 
walnut  trees,  which  are  re- 
placed higher  up  by  beech, 
maple,  and  other  trees  of  the  cool  temperate  zones,  and  still  higher 
by  a  belt  of  evergreens.  Above  these  come  dwarfed  trees,  shrubs, 
grass,  etc. ;  and  higher  still,  at  an  average  elevation  of  about  nine 
thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  the  snow  line  is  reached. 

The  numerous  lofty  mountains,  rising  in  the  path  of  the  prevailing 
westerlies,  cause  Switzerland  to  be  one  of  the  wettest  countries  on  the  con- 

4ll» 


Fig.  376. 


A  glacier  in  the  Swiss  Alps. 


406 


EUROPE 


tinent.  On  the  higher  mountains  much  snow  falls,  and  as  this  does  not  all 
melt  in  the  summer  it  slowly  accumulates  in  the  upper  valleys  to  pro- 
duce streams  of  ice,  or  glaciers  (Fig.  376).  These  move  slowly  down  the 
valleys  until  they  reach  a  point  below  the  snow  line  where  the  ice  melts. 
They  there  deposit  terminal  moraines,  which,  though  smaller,  resemble  the 
moraines  made  by  the  continental  glaciers  of  the  Ice  Age  (p.  14).  The 
Rhone  and  many  other  rivers  are  supplied  with  water  by  the  melting  of 
the  Alpine  glaciers. 

People  and  Government.  —  People  who  dwell  among  mountains 
develop  a  spirit  of  independence,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  story  of 

William  Tell.  Thus  we  find  that, 
as  early  as  1291,  an  agreement 
was  made  among  a  few  of  the 
small  Swiss  states,  or  cantons^ 
for  mutual  protection  against  op- 
pression. Many  a  time  since  then 
foreigners  have  attempted  to 
conquer  the  Swiss  ;  but,  aided  by 
the  difficult  approaches  to  their 
country,  and  by  the  mountain 
fastnesses  to  which  they  could 
retreat,  they  have  been  able  to 
maintain  their  freedom,  although 
the  entire  area  of  the  country  is 
only  one  third  that  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Their  twenty-two  cantons, 
united  somewhat  as  are  our  own 
states,  now  constitute  a  republic, 
the  neutrality  of  which  is  guar- 
anteed by  the  Great  Powers  of 
Europe. 

But  while  there  is  one  stable 
government  there  is  not  one  com- 
mon language.  The  country  is  most 
open  toward  the  north,  for  the 
plateau  of  Switzerland  merges  into 
that  of  Germany.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, German-speaking  people  are  most  abundant,  making  up  72  per  cent 
of  the  population.  The  approach  from  France  is  much  more  difficult,  and 
the  French  population  constitutes  only  22  per  cent  of  the  whole,  while  but 
6  per  cent  speak  Italian 


Fig.  377. 
A  Swiss  peasant  costume. 


SWITZERLAND 


407 


Farming.  —  Owing  to  the  mountainous  condition,  only  one  acre 
in  nine  is  fit  for  the  plow.  Yet  agriculture  is  the  principal  indus- 
try. On  the  lower  lands  grain,  grapes,  and  the  silkworm  are  raised, 
as  in  the  neighboring  countries  ;  and  on  the  lower  mountains  dairy 
farming  is  important,  as  might  be  expected.  The  population  is  so 
dense,  however,  that  much  food  must  be  imported,  though  some 
products,  such  as  cheese  and  condensed  milk,  are  exported. 

Manufacturing.  —  Switzerland  is  very  poor  in  mineral  deposits, 
and  coal  is  entirely  lacking.  This  scarcity  of  raw  materials  would 
suggest  that  there  is  little  manufacturing,  but  the  inference  is  false. 
That  the  Swiss  possess  marked  mechanical  skill  is  indicated  by  the 
remarkable  wood  carving  for  which  they  have  long  been  noted. 
Like  New  Englanders,  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  coal,  cotton,  and 
ore  deposits,  they  have  engaged  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of 
light  articles,  such  as  textile  goods,  jewelry,  etc. 


laww^xyrv 


■'  I  'K 


A  view  of  Lake  Lucerne. 


Fig.  378. 

The  wall  on  the  left  bounds  a  road  which  is  cut  in  the  rock  on 
the  mountain  side. 


The  commercial  position  of  Switzerland  is  advantageous,  since  it  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  densely  populated  countries  which  supply  raw 
materials  and  furnish  a  market  for  manufactured  goods.  The  influence  of 
the  latter  fact  upon  the  cities  is  very  marked. 


Leading  Cities.  —  The  largest  city,  Zurich,  on  Lake  Zurich,  is 
an  important  railway  center.  The  St.  Gothard  railway,  which  runs 
northward  from  Genoa  and  Milan,  connects  the  city  with  Italy,  while 
other  railways  bring  it  in  touch  with  France,  Germany,  and  Austria. 


408 


EUROPE 


These  roads  are  especially  important  for  the  introduction  of  foods  and 
raw  materials  for  manufacture.  Therefore  Zurich  is  the  center  of 
one  of  the  principal  manufacturing  districts,  and  is  itself  especially 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  silks,  cotton,  and  machinery. 

The  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  (Fig.V),  from  which  the  railway  takes  its  name, 
is  a  marvel  of  engineering  skill.  Before  reaching  the  main  tunnel  several 
smaller  ones  are  entered,  through  which  the  train  winds  in  a  spiral  course, 
so  that  once  or  twice  a  passenger  comes  out  of  the  mountain  almost  directly 
over  the  poiut  where  he  entered  it ;  and  in  some  cases  he  can  see  far  below 

him  two  places,  one  above 
the  other,  at  which  the  train 
entered  to  follow  its  spiral 
course  in  the  mountain  rock. 
This  is  made  necessary  be- 
cause the  grade  is  so  steep 
that  a  train  could  not  be 
drawn  directly  up  a  straight 
track.  The  main  tunnel, 
which  is  nine  and  one  fourth 
miles  long,  is  quite  straight. 
The  Simplon  Tunnel,  a  short 
distance  west  of  the  St.  Goth- 
ard, also  connects  Switzer- 
land and  Italy,  and  has  a 
length  of  twelve  miles. 
These  tunnels,  giving  access 
to  the  raw-silk  market  of 
Italy,  have  aided  in  develop- 
ing silk  making,  the  chief 
manufacturing  industry  of 
Switzerland. 

Basel,  which  forms 
the  second  center  of  popu- 
lation in  Switzerland,  is 
the  busiest  railway  point 
in  the  country.  It  is  on 
the  main  line  of  the  St.  Gothard  railway,  and  on  the  Rhine  where  it 
enters  Germany  from  Switzerland.  Why  is  its  position,  near  both 
France  and  Germany,  favorable  to  manufacturing  ? 

Geneva,  situated  on  the  southwestern  end  of  Lake  Geneva, 
where  the  Rhone  enters  France,  is  a  noted  educational  center.  It  is 
on  a  very  ancient  and  important  trade  route  from  southern  France 
to  Germany  (p.  362),  and  therefore  has  excellent  railway  connections. 


Fig.  379. 

The  Matterhorn  peak,  one  of  the  steepest  in  Switzer- 
land. 


SWITZERLAND 


409 


Water  power  is  much  used  in  generating  electricity  for  use  in  manu- 
facturing, and  the  city  makes  jewelry  and  scientific  instruments. 

Berne,  the  capital,  is  centrally  located;  but  it  is  a  small  city 
because  its  situation  for  commerce  is  not  favorable. 

Scenery  and  Tourists.  —  Many  of  the  Swiss  cities  are  beautifully  situ- 
ated upon  lakes,  and  within  sight  of  mountain  peaks  always  covered  by 
snow.  Lucerne,  for  example,  is  surrounded  by  most  beautiful  and  varied 
scenery.  The  city  is  located  upon  Lake  Lucerne,  and  lofty  mountains 
rise  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  (Fig.  378).     Mts.  Eigi  and  Pilatus 


L:-i '^ ,:. .;;.-. .^  v  w  i-*. 

3 

Fig.  380. 
Lake  Geneva;  In  a  valley  among  the  Alps.    The  Rhone  River  flows  out  of  this  lake. 

are  near  by,  and  from  their  summit  one  obtains  a  magnificent  view  of  the 
lake,  bordered  by  green  meadows  and  numerous  villages,  over  four  thousand 
feet  below ;  while  in  several  directions,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  are  the 
crests  of  stupendous,  jagged  mountains.  The  roads  of  Switzerland  (p. 
410)  are  famous  as  examples  of  engineering  skill,  and  of  the  wonderful 
enterprise  of  the  people.  On  account  of  its  scenery  Switzerland  is  the 
most  noted  summer  resort  of  Europe. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  What  are  the  principal  physiographic  features? 
(2)  How  does  the  temperature  vary  ?    (3)  What  about  the  rainfall  ?     (4)  Tell 


410 


SUBOPE 


about  the  glaciers.  (5)  Give  reasons  why  the  Swiss  have  been  able  to  maintain 
their  independence.  (6)  What  about  their  language  ?  (7)  What  about  raw  mate- 
rials? (8)  Give  reasons  for  the  development  of  manufacturing.  (9)  For  what  is 
Zurich  important?  (10)  Tell  about  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel.  (11)  Tell  about 
(a)  Basel,  (b)  Geneva,  (c)  Berne.    (12)  Why  do  so  many  tourists  visit  Switzerland  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  What  other  factors  besides  altitude  cause  great  variety 
of  climate  in  Switzerland  ?  (2)  How  may  the  lakes  act  as  filters  and  regulators 
for  the  rivers  ?  (3)  The  Rhone  enters  Lake  Geneva  laden  with  sediment  derived 
from  the  glaciers ;  but  it  leaves  the  lake  clear  of  sediment.  By  such  deposits 
extensive  deltas  are  built  in  all  of  the  lakes.  Of  what  value  is  that  fact  ?  (4)  What 
special  reasons  are  there  for  giving  particular  attention  to  the  study  of  English  and 
other  foreign  languages  in  the  Swiss  schools  ?  (5)  Why  has  Switzerland,  unlike 
many  European  countries,  not  come  into  possession  of  colonies  ?  (6)  Find  the 
meaning  of  referendum  and  popular  initiative  in  Swiss  legislation.  (7)  Why 
should  Switzerland  be  selected  as  a  place  of  refuge  by  persecuted  people  and  politi- 
cal refugees  from  other  nations  ?  (8)  Read  that  portion  of  the  story  of  William 
Tell  which  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  about  Lake  Lucerne. 


Fig.  381.  — A  mountain  road  rising  up  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  to  one  of  the  passes.  The 
Rhone  glacier  is  seen  in  the  middle  of  the  picture.  Notice  the  stream  that  issues  from 
it,  and  flows  with  numerous  branches,  or  with  a  braided  course,  over  the  sediment 
that  it  brings  from  the  ice. 


X.     ITALY 

Map  Questions  (Fig.  375).  —  (1)  Of  what  does  the  shape  of  Italy  remind 
you  ?  (2)  How  does  its  latitude  compare  with  that  of  Spain  ?  (3)  What  neigh- 
boring islands  belong  to  it?  (4)  Point  out  the  principal  river.  (5)  How  are  the 
lofty  mountains  in  the  north  likely  to  affect  the  climate?  (6)  What  countries 
border  Italy?  (7)  What  seas  border  the  peninsula?  (8)  How  does  its  position 
seem  to  be  advantageous  for  commerce? 

Extent  and  Position.  —  Italy  is  "  the  very  heart  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean lands,  and  plays  a  great  part  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  com- 
munication between  northwestern  Europe  and  the  Far  East."  For 
example,  mails  from  London  to  India  go  by  rail  to  Brindisi  in  south- 
eastern Italy,  and  thence  by  steamer.  What  countries  in  Africa 
lie  nearest  to  Italy  ?  (Fig.  443.)     Estimate  the  distance  to  them. 

The  area  of  Italy,  including  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia, 
is  only  a  little  greater  than  that  of  Colorado,  but  its  population  is 
about  32,000,000.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  six  Great  Powers,  but 
is  the  most  densely  populated  of  any  except  the  United  Kingdom. 
Name  the  Powers. 

People  and  Government The  inhabitants  of  Italy  are  a  mixture 

of  many  peoples.  In  early  times,  the  central  position  of  the  Italian 
peninsula  was  of  importance  in  aiding  the  government  at  Rome  to 
control  the  lands  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  At  that  time 
people  from  the  surrounding  lands  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  were 
brought  to  the  peninsula,  often  as  slaves  captured  in  war.  Later,  when 
the  power  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  weakened,  hordes  of  barbarians 
invaded  Italy.  Nevertheless,  the  permanent  settlers  have  invariably 
been  won  over  to  one  language;  and  Italian,  which  is  a  growth  out 
of  the  Latin  of  the  ancient  Romans,  is  now  the  universal  tongue. 

For  centuries  Italy  was  broken  up  into  a  number  of  separate  and 
independent  kingdoms  ;  but  here,  as  in  other  countries,  the  tendency 
of  recent  times  has  been  toward  unity.  In  1860  several  of  the  inde- 
pendent states  united  to  form  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ;  and  later  others 
were  added,  until,  in  1870,  or  about  the  same  time  that  the  German 
Empire  was  formed  (p.  391),  the  present  kingdom  was  established 
with  Rome  as  its  capital.  Like  most  of  the  European  countries, 
Italy  is  governed  by  a  limited,  or  constitutional,  monarchy. 

411 


412 


EUBOPE 


Physiography  and  Climate.  —  The  Italian  peninsula  is  mountain- 
ous throughout  most  of  its  extent.  In  the  north  are  the  Alps,  some 
of  whose  highest  peaks  are  on  the  boundary  line  between  Italy  and 
Switzerland.  The  Alpine  ranges  curve  around  in  northwestern 
Italy  and  join  the  Appennines,  which  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
peninsula  and  form  its  very  backbone.  The  principal  lowlands, 
therefore,  are  the  narrow  coastal  plains  and  the  broad  Po  valley. 

We  think  of  Italy  as  a  sunny  land  of  flowers,  although  Milan  and 
Venice  are  on  nearly  the  same  parallel  as  Montreal.     One  reason  for  the 

pleasant  climate  is  that  the 
lofty  Alps  form  a  great  wall 
which  cuts  off  the  cold  north 
winds.  Another  reason  is 
that  the  peninsula  is  under 
the  equalizing  influence  of 
the  Mediterranean,  whose 
waters  have  a  temperature 
of  over  50°.  On  these  ac- 
counts the  Italian  winters 
are  mild,  and  in  the  extreme 
south  the  temperature 
seldom  falls  to  the  freezing 
point. 

Much  of  Italy  has  an 
abundance  of  rain  ;  but,  ex- 
cept  in  the  north,  the 
greater  part  comes  in 
winter.  The  summer  drought  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  horse-latitude 
belt  moves  northward  in  summer  (p.  248);  therefore  southern  Italy  at 
that  season  resembles  southern  Spain  in  climate. 


Fig.  382. 
An  Italian  team  at  Naples. 


Agriculture.  —  Such  a  climate,  together  with  a  fertile  soil,  helps  to 
explain  why  agriculture  is  the  principal  industry  in  Italy.  Among 
the  products  are  many  that  thrive  in 'semi-tropical  climates,  as  well 
as  others  that  are  common  in  the  countries  of  northern  Europe.  The 
climate  is  so  favorable  that,  by  the  aid  of  irrigation,  from  four  to  ten 
crops  may  be  raised  in  a  year. 

The  most  extensive  farming  district  is  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Po  basin. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  rainfall ;  yet  the  people  depend  upon  irrigation 
more  extensively  than  in  any  other  part  of  Europe.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  such  extensive  irrigation.  In  the  first  place,  the  fact  that  the 
tributaries  have  their  sources  in  the  mountains,  and  often  in  the  glaciers 
and  snows  of  the  Alps,  insures  a  permanent  supply  of  water  to  the  gently 


ITALY 


41S 


sloping  land.  Besides  this,  the  rivers  frequently  flow  through  lakes  — 
some  of  them  among  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world  —  which  act  as  great 
reservoirs  for  water  supply. 

Where  irrigation  is  so  easy,  the  extensive  cultivation  of  rice  is 
possible.  This  is  an  important  crop  in  northern  Italy,  but  corn  and 
wheat  are  raised  in  still  greater  quantities.  Grapes  are  cultivated 
to  such  an  extent  that  Italy  ranks  second  among  the  wine-producing 


Fig.  383. 

A  herd  of  goats  in  the  streets  of  Naples.    These  are  driven  about  the  city,  and  even  into  the 

houses,  to  be  milked. 


countries  of  the  world ;  and  so  many  silkworms  are  reared  that  raw 
silk  is  the  most  valuable  export  of  the  country.  Among  the  other 
important  products  are  eggs,  which  are  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ties ;  also  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  flax,  hemp,  and  wool. 

Mining  and  Fishing.  —  There  is  a  little  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  ore ;  but 
one  of  the  most  important  mineral  products  is  the  sulphur  of  Sicily;  indeed, 
until  a  few  years  ago  this  island  produced  most  of  the  sulphur  used  in 
the  world.  Another  important  mineral  product  is  marble  of  such  rare 
beauty  that  it  is  prized  the  world  over. 

The  fishing  industry  is  important.  Among  the  peculiar  products  of  the 
sea  are  precious  coral  and  sponges.  You  will  remember  that  we  found 
sponge  fishing  important  also  among  the  Bahama  Islands  east  of  Florida. 


414 


EUROPE 


Manufacturing.  —  As  in  Switzerland,  electricity  generated  by- 
water  power  supplies  the  place  of  coal  to  some  extent.  Conse- 
quently there  is  more  manufacturing  than  one  might  infer  from  the 
lack  of  fuel.  While  much  raw  silk  is  produced,  and  there  is  some  silk 
manufacturing,  a  large  part  of  the  silk  is  sent  to  France,  Switzerland, 

and  elsewhere,  to  be  made  into 
cloth.  There  are  also  factories  for 
woolen,  cotton,  and  flax  weaving, 
and  for  other  purposes. 

Most  European  countries  take 
pride  in  their  fine  art  galleries; 
but  Italy  far  surpasses  them  all 
and  is  the  very  storehouse  of  art, 
whether  architecture,  painting,  or 
sculpture  be  considered.  Accord- 
ingly, the  characteristic  manufac- 
tured articles  are  those  of  an  artistic 
nature,  as  glass  work,  lace,  earthen- 
ware, statuary,  wood  carving,  coral 
carving,  and  straw  plaiting.  In 
what  other  country  have  we  found 
that  the  artistic  taste  of  the  people 
greatly  affects  their  manufactures? 

Principal  Cities.  —  Estimate  the 
average  width  of  the  Italian  pen- 
insula. Since  it  possesses  many 
excellent  harbors,  we  may  expect 

The  leaning  tower  of  Pisa,  which  has  become   ^q  ^^-^(J  numerous  large  citieS  alonST 
tilted  because  of  settling  on  one  side.  >        r^  i-»   •      • 

the  coast,  as  m  (xreat  Britain. 
Naples  and  Vicinity.  —  The  most  populous  city  is  Naples,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  The  semi-circular  bay  on  which 
it  is  situated  presents  one  of  the  most  magnificent  sights  in  the  world. 
On  the  northwest  is  the  city  itself,  rising,  street  above  street,  upon 
an  amphitheater  of  hills  ;  toward  the  east  is  Mt.  Vesuvius  (Fig.  385), 
with  the  crests  of  the  Appennines  in  the  distant  background ;  and  on 
the  southeast  is  a  steep,  rocky  coast,  behind  which  are  numerous  vil- 
lages partly  concealed  among  groves  of  orange,  lemon,  and  palm  trees. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  sections  of  Italy,  —  thanks  to  the  ashes 
that  have  been  thrown  out  of  Vesuvius,  —  and  the  agricultural  population 
is  one  of  the  densest  in  Europe.     The  harbor,  too,  is  good,  so  that  there 


Fig.  384. 


ITALY 


415 


is  more  shipping  here  than  in  any  other  Italian  port  with  the  exception 
of  Genoa.  But  the  secret  of  so  large  a  city  in  this  agricultural  region  is 
found  partly  in  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Italians,  who  feel  a  dread  of 
isolated  homes  such  as  are  common  throughout  the  farming  districts  of 
the  United  States.  Consequently  they  crowd  into  the  villages  and  cities, 
even  though  they  must  travel  a  long  distance  to  their  field  of  work,  or 
must  suffer  now  and  then  from  extreme  want. 

Within  plain  sight  of  Naples  stands  Mt.  Vesuvius,  a  cone  of  lava  and 
ashes  nearly  a  mile  in  height,  from  the  crater  of  which  volumes  of  steam 
constantly  pour  forth.  At  the  time  of  Christ  the  slopes  of  this  mountain 
were  dotted  with  productive  farms,  while  thriving  towns  spread  over  the 
country  at  its  base.     But  in  the  year  79  an  appalling  eruption  took  place 


Fig.  386. 
A  view  of  Vesuvius,  with  a  part  of  Pompeii  in  the  foreground. 


which  completely  buried  Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and  many  villages  beneath 
showers  of  ashes  and  streams  of  volcanic  mud.  Since  then  many  erup- 
tions have  been  recorded,  the  last  violent  one  occurring  in  1872.  During 
the  last  half  century  the  buried  cities,  especially  Pompeii,  have  been 
imearthed  at  great  labor  and  cost.  By  these  excavations  much  has  been 
learned  about  the  buildings  and  customs  of  the  people  who  lived  nearly 
two  thousand  years  ago. 

At  present,  tourists  daily  ascend  to  the  top  of  Vesuvius.  There  they 
see  one  of  the  most  awful  sights  in  the  world  when  they  cautiously 
approach  to  the  very  edge  of  the  crater  —  an  opening  perhaps  a  fourth  of 
a  mile  across  —  and  peer  down  into  the  abyss.     Reports  like  the  thunder- 


416 


EXTROPM 


ings  of  cannon  come  from  far  below,  and  lumps  of  lava  as  large  as  a  man's 
head  are  often  hurled  upward.  Not  seldom  lava  lumps  rise  above  the 
mouth  of  the  opening  and  fall  here  and  there  outside,  making  one's  visit 
all  the  more  exciting  by  the  slight  danger  of  being  hit. 

Ancient  and  Modern  Borne.  —  By  far  the  most  interesting  spot  in 
Italy  is  Rome,  the  "  Eternal  City,"  long  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
world,  afterward  of  the  empire  of  the  Popes,  and  now  of  Italy. 

The  site  of  Rome  was  well  chosen.  It  lies  near  the  center  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  near  the  center  of  the  Italian  peninsula  as  well. 


Fig.  386. 
The  Sistine  Chapel,  in  the  Vatican,  where  the  Pope  lives. 

In  that  part  of  Italy  the  fertile  coastal  plains  are  broad  and  are  inter- 
sected by  the  Tiber,  the  largest  river  of  the  country  except  the  Po.  In 
that  vicinity,  also,  the  Appennines  reach  their  highest  altitude,  which 
insures  abundant  water  supply  for  the  Tiber  and  for  the  plains. 
Moreover,  the  valley  of  the  Tiber  offers  one  of  the  most  convenient 
routes  across  the  peninsula.  These  are  some  of  the  advantages  that 
attracted  to  ancient  Rome  a  population  of  fully  a  million,  and  caused 
the  surrounding  country  to  be  thickly  settled  and  carefully  tilled. 


IT  ALT 


417 


Now,  however,  the  city  contains  less  than  half  as  many  inhabitants, 
while  the  neighboring  plains  for  miles  around,  though  beautiful  pasture 
land,  have  scarcely  a  tree  or  a  house  upon  them.  The  reason  for  this  lack 
of  suburban  life  is  the  very  prevalent  malaria.  At  present,  the  country 
is  of  use  for  little  else  than  grazing ;  and  as  summer  approaches  even  the 
herdsmen  flee  with  their  cattle  and  sheep  to  the  mountains. 

But  while  agriculture  and  commerce  do  not  flourish  near  Eome,  fine 
residences,  public  buildings,  art  galleries,  and  notable  ruins  are  numerous 
in  the  city.  The  dome  of  St.  Petefs  —  the  largest  and  most  famous  church 
in  the  world  —  towers  above  everything  else;  and  the  Vatican,  where  the 
Pope  resides,  is  the  largest  palace  in  Christendom.  In  the  Vatican  are 
some  of  the  finest  and  most  beautiful  of  paintings  (Fig.  386). 


Fig.  387. 
Ruins  of  the  Colosseum,  at  Rome. 


The  ruins  of  ancient  Rome  vie  in  interest  with  these  products  of  later 
Rome,  and  cover  so  many  acres  that  the  city  is  almost  as  much  a  tomb  as  a 
living  city.  The  most  conspicuous  relic  of  the  past  is  the  Colosseum  (Fig. 
387),  a  huge,  oval-shaped  theater,  open  to  the  sky,  with  seats  for  forty  or  fifty 
thousand  persons.  In  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire  it  was  used  to  witness 
life  and  death  struggles  between  men,  and  between  men  and  wild  beasts. 

The  Forum  is  another  extensive  ruin  within  the  city  limits.  It  was 
the  great  public  square,  on  a  lowland  between  some  hills ;  but  its  monu- 
ments, arches,  and  other  ornaments  were  covered  with  rubbish  during  the 
centuries  succeeding  the  fall  of  the  Empire.  The  excavation  of  this 
famous  spot  has  not  yet  been  completed,  whole  buildings,  as  well  as 
smaller  objects,  having  been  buried  in  that  locality. 

Other  Italian  Cities.  —  With  the  exception  of  Rome  and  Naples 
the  large  cities  of  the  Italian  peninsula  are  in  the  northern  part. 


418 


EUROPE 


The  principal  city  south  of  Naples  is  Palermo,  the  capital  of  Sicily. 
It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  extensive  fruit  groves.  What  fruits 
would  you  expect  to  find  there  ? 

The  first  large  city  north  of  Rome  is  Florence,  on  the  western 
base  of  the  Appennines,  at  a  junction  of  roads  across  the  mountains. 
Straw  plaiting,  mosaic  work,  and  silk  manufacturing  are  important 
Florentine  industries ;  and  the  city  is  famous  for  its  art  galleries. 

Milan,  the  leading  city  of  northern  Italy,  owes  its  importance 
to  its  location  at  the  crossing  of  roads  running  east  and  west  in  the 
Po  valley,  and  north  and  south  over  the  Alps.  Turin  has  flourished 
for  a  similar  reason.  From  very  early  times  these  cities  have  been 
important  trade  centers  because  of  their  position  at  the  crossing  of 
trade  routes  in  a  fertile,  densely  populated  valley.  The  railways 
across  the  Alps  (p.  408)  have  greatly  increased  their  importance. 

Milan  possesses  a  magnificent  cathedral  built  of  white  marble  and 
adorned  with  more  than  a  hundred  spires  and  fully  four  thousand 
statues.  On  the  wall  of  an  old  monastery  in  Milan  is  Da  Vinci's  famous 
painting,  "The  Last  Supper,"  copies  of  which  are  often  seen  in  our 
homes.  The  city  is  the  center  of  the  silk  trade,  and  manufactures  much 
cutlery. 

Genoa,  although  separated  from  the  Po  valley  by  the  low 
Appennines,  is  the  natural  port  of  Milan  and  Turin.  Since  it  is  a 
port  of  outlet  for  so  fertile  a  region,  and  is  now  connected  with  cen- 


FiG.   388. 
A  view  of  a  part  of  Venice 


ITALY 


419 


tral  Europe  by  railway  (p.  408),  this  citj  is  the  most  important  sea- 
port in  Italy. 

The  principal  seaport  of  the  Adriatic  is  Venice,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  Euroj)ean  cities.  When  hordes  of  barbarians  were  invad- 
ing Italy,  some  of  the  residents  retreated  to  a  number  of  small  islands 
in  a  lagoon,  protected  from  the  sea  waves  by  low  sand  bars.  The 
people  developed  into  a  hardy  independent  race,  largely  through 
contact  with  the  sea.  Their  very  position  forced  them  to  become 
sailors ;  and  the  site  of  their  city  was  favorable  for  commerce  be- 
tween central  Europe  and  the  East.  Protected  from  attack  by  land, 
Venice  rose  in 
power,  and  with 
power  came 
wealth.  Many 
beautiful  houses, 
churches,  palaces, 
and  museums  are 
reminders  of  the 
ancient  splendor. 

The  city  is  built 
upon  more  thau  a 
hundred  small 
islands,  about  two 
and  a  half  miles 
from  the  mainland, 
with  which  it  is 
now  connected  by 
railway.  Naturally, 
canals  take  the  place 
of  streets.  There 
are  one  hundred  and 
fifty  canals,  the  main 
one,  or  Grand  Canal,  being  flanked  on  either  side  by  fine  residences,  the 
steps  of  which  lead  down  into  the  water.  Nearly  four  hundred  bridges 
join  the  different  islands,  and  there  are  many  narrow  footpaths,  but  since 
the  chief  thoroughfares  are  canals,  gondolas  (Fig.  389)  take  the  place  of 
wagons,  carriages,  and  street  cars.  No  doubt  thousands  of  children  in 
that  city  have  never  seen  a  horse. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  In  what  respects  is  Italy's  position  favorable  ? 
(2)  What  about  the  size  of  the  peninsula  ?  (3)  Tell  about  the  origin  of  the  people. 
(4)  Tell  about  the  government.  (5)  What  are  the  principal  features  of  the 
physiography?    (6)  What  factors  equalize  the  temperature?     (7)  Tell  about  th« 


Fig.  389. 

A  gondola  in  Venice  — the  ducal  palace,  or  palace  of  the  Doges, 
is  seen  on  the  farther  side. 


420 


EUROPE 


rainfall.  (8)  What  crops  are  raised?  (9)  Of  what  value  is  irrigation  ?  (10)  What 
conditions  especiaUy  favor  it  in  the  Po  valley?  (11)  Name  the  leading  agri- 
cultural  products.  (12)  What  mineral  products  come  from  Italy?  (13)  What 
other  raw  products  ?  (14)  What  about  manufacturing  ?  (15)  Write  from  mem- 
ory a  brief  description  of  Naples  and  vicinity,  including  Vesuvius  and  Pompeii. 
(16)  Give  the  reasons  for  the  location  of  Rome.  (17)  What  changes  have  oc- 
curred since  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire  ?  (18)  Tell  the  principal  facts  about 
each  of  the  following  cities :  (a)  Palermo,  (&)  Florence,  (c)  Milan,  (d)  Turin, 
(€)  Genoa,  (/)  Venice. 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  Why  should  Italy  have  been  relatively  much  more  im- 
portant in  former  times  than  now  ?  (2)  What  colonies  has  Italy  in  eastern  Africa  ? 
Suggest  reasons  why  Italy  has  so  few  colonies.  (3)  What  must  have  been  the  influ- 
ence upon  Genoa  and  Venice  of  the  discovery  of  the  ocean  route  to  India?    Why  ? 

(4)  What  must  have  been  the  influence  of  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal?    Why  ? 

(5)  Would  you  expect  that  Italy  would  have  a  large  navy  ?  Find  out  how  her  navy 
ranks  with  those  of  the  other  five  Great  Powers  ;   with  that  of  the  United  States. 

(6)  Mention  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  life  in  Venice.  (7)  Make  a  collec- 
tion of  the  different  famous  pictures  of  the  Madonna.  (8)  Find  out  about  the 
catacombs  of  Rome;  the  roads;  the  aqueducts.  (9)  Find  out  about  some  of 
the  ancient  Romans  and  Roman  customs.  (10)  Ask  some  lawyer  to  tell  you  what 
influence  Roman  law  has  had  upon  our  own  law. 


Fig.  Z. 

The  Italian  coast  near  Amalfi,  showing  the  houses  clinging  to  the  hillside ;  the  road  cut  and 
built  on  the  cliff  side,  and  even  tunneling  through  it ;  and  Amalfi  itself  built  on  a  small 
stroftn  delta. 


XL     AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


Map  Questions  (Fig.  375).  —  (1)  Compare  Austria-Hungary  with  Germany 
in  area.  (2)  Compare  the  two  countries  in  population.  (3)  Compare  the  two 
in  number  of  large  cities.  In  which,  therefore,  would  you  expect  to  find  most 
devefopment?  (4)  About  what  proportion  of  the  boundary  is  formed  by  water? 
(5)  What  countries  border  this  empire?  (6)  What  portions  are  mountainous? 
(7)  What  would  you  say  about  the  variety  of  climate  ?  (8)  What  sections  do  not 
belong  to  the  Danube  basin  ? 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  A  large  proportion  of  the  boundary 
line  of  Austria-Hungary  is  determined  by  mountain  ranges.     Point 
out  these  ranges.     Notice  that  the  Russian  boundary  extends  across 
an  open  plain.    This  plain 
is   Austria's    share   of 
Poland,  a  kingdom  which 
once   extended  from   the 
Baltic  Sea  to  the  Carpa- 
thian Mountains.    Poland 
was    conquered    and 
divided  between  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  Russia,  Aus- 
tria receiving  the  smallest 
share  and   Russia   the 
largest. 

Austria-Hungary  is 
one  of  the  most  mountain- 
ous countries  in  Europe. 
It  includes  the  eastern 
half  of  the  Alps  (Fig. 
390),  besides  several  other 
ranges.  These  mountains 
together  form  a  circle  in- 
closing a  broad  plain  (Fig.  391),  through  which  the  Danube  River 
flows.  At  two  points  this  circle  is  completely  broken :  once  near 
Vienna,  where  the  Danube  enters  the  great  Hungarian  plain  (Fig. 
375),  and  again  on  the  southeastern  boundary,  where  the  river  leaves 
the  plain. 

The  Danube  valley  is  the  great  trade  route  of  Austria-Hungary,  since 
it  offers  the  best  passageway  through  the  mountains.     The  fact  that  the 

421 


Fig.  390. 
A  street  in  a  small  Alpine  village  of  western  Austria. 


422 


EUROPE 


river  is  navigable  from  Germany  to  its  mouth  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of 
this  route. 

Transportation  is  all  the  more  confined  to  the  river  route  because  of 
the  peculiar  coast  line  of  Austria-Hungary.  Although  the  country  is  next 
in  size  to  Russia  among  European  nations,  it  has  only  a  small  amount  of 
coast.  Estimate  its  length.  There  are  numerous  harbors,  to  be  sure,  but 
they  are  difficult  of  access  from  the  interior,  because  of  the  rugged  moun- 


Fia.  391. 

The  Danube,  where  it  flows  through  the  Hungarian  plain. 

tains  that  rise  from  the  very  seashore.  At  only  two  points  on  the  Adriatic 
can  good  harbors  be  reached  from  the  Danube  lowlands  without  difficulty. 
What  cities  are  located  at  these  points  ? 

In  so  mountainous  a  country  there  is  naturally  much  variation  both  in 
rainfall  and  temperature.  Everywhere  except  on  the  higher  mountains, 
however,  the  temperature  is  favorable  for  the  growth  of  grains  and  other 
crops  of  temperate  latitudes.  That  is,  the  summers  are  warm  and  the 
winters  are  cold;  but  the  extremes  are  much  greater  than  in  England. 
Why  ?  The  rainfall  of  the  lowlands,  which  averages  little  over  twenty 
inches,  is  barely  sufficient  for  agriculture,  and  the  plains  of  Hungary  are 
subject  to  serious  drought  in  summer. 

People  and  Government.  —  Such  a  rugged  surface,  with  many  in- 
closed valleys,  separates  the  people  and  favors  the  development  of 
very  different  customs  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  different  sections. 


AUSTRIA- HUNGARY 


428 


Moreover,  the  ease  of  approach  from  the  north  and  east  has  led 
to  repeated  invasions  from  these  directions.  The  result  has  been 
that  the  empire  of  Austria-Hungary  is  a  mixture  of  many  peoples. 
Germanic  people,  who  form  about  a  fourth  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion, are  most  numerous  in  Austria;  while  the  Magyars,  a  race  allied 
to  the  Mongolian,  form  nearly  half  the  population  of  Hungary; 
but  races  related  to  the  Slavs  of  Russia  are  more  numerous  than 
either  of  the  other  groups.  There  are,  in  addition,  large  numbers 
allied  to  the  Italians  and  other  peoples  (Fig.  392).  German  is  the 
official  language  and  is  spoken  by  the  educated  classes. 


There  are  at  least  a  dozen  languages  in  the  empire,  and  often  two  or 
three  are  spoken  in  a  single  town.  To  be  sure,  a  similar  statement  might 
be  made  in  regard  to  the  United  States,  for  we  certainly  have  a  great 
variety  of  languages.  But  no  matter  from  what  part  of  the  earth  our 
citizens  have  come,  they 
have,  in  most  cases,  greatly 
modified  their  former  cus- 
toms and  have  become  genu- 
ine Americans  in  spirit.  The 
principal  exception  are  the 
Chinamen,  who,  instead  of 
identifying  themselves  with 
us,  remain  Chinamen  as  long 
as  they  live. 

The  many  distinct  peo- 
ples of  Austria- Hungary  re- 
semble the  Chinamen  in  their 
tendency  to  remain  apart. 
They  are  not  only  dissimilar 
in  religion,  ambitions,  and 
customs,  but  their  interests 
are  often  conflicting;  and 
they  are  jealous  and  suspi- 
cious of,  and  often  hostile  to, 
one  another. 

It  has  been  a  difficult 
matter  to  bring  these  peo- 
ple under  a  common  rule. 
Nevertheless,  in  1867,  the 
Austrian  Empire  and  the 
kingdom  of  Hungary  were  united  under  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  to 
form  the  empire  of  Austria-Hungary.      Each  of  the  countries  pre* 


Fig.  311 


A  Gypsy  family  and  hut  in  Austria-Hungary. 


424 


EUROPE 


serves  its  own  constitution,  makes  its  own  laws,  and  is  independent 
of  the  other  in  many  respects,  as  was  formerly  the  case  in  Norway 
and  Sweden.  But  they  work  together  in  matters  of  common  inter- 
est, such  as  the  army  and  navy,  foreign  affairs,  and  finance. 

Natural  Resources.  —  Many  of  the  mountain  slopes  are  forest- 
covered,  and  in  the  remoter  parts  wild  animals  are  still  found. 
Since  nearly  one  third  of  the  empire  is  wooded,  lumber  forms  one  of 
the  important  resources  of  the  country. 

Where  the  woods  have  been  cleared  away,  there  are  pastures  for 
pheep  and  goats.      Cattle  are  also  raised,  especially  on  the  lowlands. 

Near  the  Adriatic  and  in  the  warmer  valleys  there  are  many 
vineyards;   and  the  mulberry  is   raised   for  the    silkworm,   as   in 


Fig.  393. 
The  Parliament  building  at  Vienna. 


Italy  (p.  413)  and  southern  France  (p.  359).  Flax,  hemp,  corn, 
sugar  beets,  and  tobacco  are  other  important  crops.  But  the  grains, 
especially  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  are  the  staple  agricultural 
products  of  both  Austria  and  Hungary.  The  broad  plains  of  the 
Danube  (Fig.  391)  form  one  of  the  leading  wheat-producing  regions 
of  Europe.  A  large  amount  of  this  grain  is  exported,  since  the 
people,  like  the  Germans,  live  much  upon  rye  bread. 

There  is  much  mineral  wealth  in  the  mountains,  including  deposits  of 
salt,  gold,  silver,  lead,  mercury,  and  copper.  The  Hungarian  opal  is 
celebrated  for  its  beauty  ;  and  the  excellent  quality  of  the  clays  has  made 
possible  the   manufacture  of   fine  porcelain  ware.     The  mineral  quartz 


AUSTRIA- HUN  OABT 


426 


supplies  the  material  for  the  Bohemian  glass  blowers,  who  make  some  of 
the  finest  ware  in  the  world. 

Iron  is  widely  distributed,  and  Austria-Hungary  ranks  third 
among  the  coal-producing  countries  of  Europe  (Fig.  305).  Some  of 
the  best  deposits  are  in  the  northwest,  near  Prague,  which  explains 
why  that  city  is  extensively  engaged  in  iron  manufacturing. 

Manufacturing  and  Commerce .  —  Austria-Hungary  does  not  manufac- 
ture nearly  so  much  as  Great  Britain,  Germany,  or  France.  Owing  partly 
to  the  poor  facilities  for  commerce,  and  partly  to  lack  of  education  and 
common  interests  among  the  people,  there  has  been  far  less  development 
of  manufacturing  than  might  be  expected. 

Much  of  the  manufacturing  is  still  done  either  by  hand  or  by  very 
simple  machines.     But  there  has  been  great  progress  in  recent  years,  and 


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Fig.  394. 

Cut  showing  a  castle  in  Austria,  a  little  village  at  the  base  of  the  hill,  and  a  mill  at  the  left. 
Notice  the  thick  walls,  formerly  of  use  to  protect  the  castle  from  attack. 


numerous  cotton,  woolen,  flour,  and  paper  mills,  iron  manufactories,  and 
beet-sugar  refineries  have  been  set  up.  There  is  also  silk  weaving.  The 
chief  manufacturing  region  is  in  the  northwest,  next  to  Germany,  while 
the  principal  agricultural  section  is  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts. 

There  is  an  extensive  internal  commerce  along  the  rivers  and  the  rail- 
ways ;  but,  owing  to  the  limited  coast  line,  ocean  commerce  is  much  less 
developed  than  in  other  large  European  nations. 


426  EUROPE 

The  most  natural  trade  route  leads  either  down  the  Danube  into  the 
Black  Sea  or  else  westward  into  Germany,  and  thence  down  the  Rhine 
valley.  Why  in  these  directions?  Less  than  one  third  of  the  foreign 
shipping  goes  by  way  of  Trieste.  This  means  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  empire  is  carried  on  through  foreign  ports.  What  dis- 
advantages do  you  see  in  that  fact  ?     Trace  the  chief  routes. 

Principal  Cities.  —  While  there  are  many  small  cities  in  this  em- 
pire, there  are  surprisingly  few  large  ones.  The  two  largest,  Vienna, 
the  capital  of  Austria,  and  Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  are 
on  the  Danube  River  and  not  on  the  seacoast.     Suggest  reasons. 

Vienna,  which  is  larger  than  Philadelphia,  is  the  greatest  city  in 
Austria-Hungary  and  the  fourth  largest  in  Europe.  The  reason  for 
its  size  is  found  first  of  all  in  its  location,  on  a  large  river  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Europe.  Moreover,  it  is  situated  at  an  opening  be- 
tween mountains,  through  which,  from  the  earliest  times,  the  best 
routes  have  passed  from  western  Europe  to  Asia,  and  from  northern 
Europe  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  railways  which  lead  from  St. 
Petersburg  to  Rome,  and  from  Berlin  and  Paris  to  Constantinople, 
converge  toward  this  point,  making  the  city  a  great  railway  and 
trade  center. 

Budapest,  consisting  of  two  towns  (Buda  and  Pest)  on  opposite 
banks  of  the  Danube,  is  the  seat  of  the  Hungarian  government  and 
the  home  of  the  emperor  for  a  part  of  each  year.  The  city  is  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  wheat-raising  plains  of  the  Danube,  and,  like 
Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea,  is  engaged  in  flour  manufacture  and  grain 
shipment. 

Prague,  the  third  city  of  Austria-Hungary,  is  situated  on  the  navigable 
Elbe,  which  since  early  times  has  been  an  important  trade  route.  Located 
in  the  midst  of  a  rich  mineral  region,  it  is  a  noted  manufacturing  center. 
Trieste,  a  city  about  the  size  of  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  is  the  largest  Aus- 
trian seaport.  Although  separated  from  the  main  part  of  the  country  by 
mountain  ranges,  it  is  connected  with  the  interior  by  a  railway.  Even  as 
far  back  as  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  pass  which  the  railway  takes  in 
crossing  the  mountains  was  followed  as  the  route  of  entrance  to  the  Danube 
valley.     Fiume,  southeast  of  Trieste,  has  an  excellent  harbor. 

Small  Countries.  —  On  the  boundary  between  Austria  and  Switzerland 
is  Liechtenstein,  a  very  small  independent  country  united  with  Austria-Hun- 
gary by  a  customs  treaty.  Two  other  countries,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
formerly  parts  of  Turkey,  are  now  practically  a  part  of  Austria-Hungary, 
and  are  therefore  not  marked  separately  on  our  maps.  They  include  the 
mountainous  land  northwest  of  Montenegro  and  Servia. 


AUSTRIA- HUNGARY 


427 


Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  physiography  of  Austria-Hungary. 
(2)  Tell  about  the  climate.  (3)  What  is  the  condition  of  the  people?  (4)  AVhat 
about  the  government  ?  (5)  Name  the  principal  raw  product.  (6)  What  is  the 
condition  of  manufacturing  ?  (7)  What  about  the  commerce  ?  (8)  Give  reasons 
for  the  location  of  Vienna.  (9)  Tell  about  the  following  cities :  (a)  Budapest, 
(b)  Prague,  (c)  Trieste,  (d)  Fiume.     (10)    What  is  said  about  small  countries  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  How  must  the  construction  of  tunnels  through  the  Alps 
have  affected  Austria-Hungary  ?  (2)  What  would  you  say  as  to  the  relative  im- 
portance of  the  Danube  and  Rhine  rivers  ?  (3)  Find  some  Bohemian  glass  to  see 
how  beautiful  it  is.  (4)  In  an  atlas  look  up  Austria-Hungary  to  find  the  portions 
which  are  called  Tyrol,  Moravia,  Bohemia,  and  Transylvania.  (5)  Look  up  some 
facts  about  the  history  of  Poland.  (6)  Suggest  reasons  for  the  absence  of  Aus- 
trian colonies.  (7)  Find  out  something  about  the  Triple  Alliance.  (8)  Read 
about  the  influence  of  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  in  holding  the  different  parts  of 
the  empire  together.     (9)  Find  out  something  about  Kossuth. 


Fig.  AA. 

Swiss  house  near  the  timber  line  in  the  Alps.  The  abundance  of  wood  leads  to  the  building 
of  wooden  houses.  The  strong  winds  make  it  necessary  to  weight  down  the  roofs  with 
large  stones.  Rough-hewn  boards  are  used  in  these  houses.  In  parts  of  Europe  where 
wood  is  scarce,  as  in  Italy,  wooden  houses  are  very  rare. 


XII.     THE   BALKAN   PENINSULA 

Map  Questions  (Fig.  375). —  (1)  What  countries  border  Roumania? 
(2)  Name  the  country  south  of  the  Danube.  (3)  What  does  the  map  tell  you 
about  the  surface  of  each  ?  (4)  What  may  you  expect  about  the  variations  in  cli- 
mate on  this  peninsula?  Why  ?  About  the  rainfall?  Why?  (5)  Compare  the 
number  of  large  cities  with  the  number  in  Germany  and  Italy.  What  inferences 
do  you  draw  concerning  the  condition  of  the  people  ?  (6)  Compare  the  area  of 
Turkey  in  Europe  with  that  of  your  own  state. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  This  double-pointed  peninsula  is 
bounded  on  one  side  by  the  Adriatic  and  Mediterranean  seas,  on  the 
other  by  the  iEgean  and  Black  seas.  It  is  unlike  other  European 
peninsulas  in  having  a  very  long  land  boundary.  Trace  it. 
Throughout  almost  its  entire  extent  the  surface  is  mountainous, 
which  offers  an  explanation  of  the  large  number  of  separate  countries 
on  the  peninsula.  How  ?  Many  of  the  valleys  are  suitable  to  ag- 
riculture, the  most  extensive  being  the  plains  of  the  Danube  in 
Roumania  and  Bulgaria. 

The  climate  varies  greatly  from  mountain  to  valley  and  from  in- 
terior to  seashore.       Along  the  southern  coast  the  winters  are  mild. 


Fig.  3'J5. 

A  view  in  Bulgaria,  showing  its  rugged  surface. 

428 


SXBVIA,    ROUMANIA,    AND    BULGABIA 


429 


as  elsewhere  near  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  in  the  northeast,  near  Rus- 
sia, hot  summers  are  followed  by  cold  winters,  when  icy  winds  sweep 
down  from  the  Russian  steppes,  and  the  Danube  freezes  over. 

In  so  mountainous  a  land  there  is  also  much  variation  in  rainfall. 
On  the  western  slopes,  for  example,  near  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic, 
there  is  an  abundance  of  rain  ;  but  on  the 
east  coast  and  in  the  interior  valleys,  es- 
pecially in  Greece,  there  is  so  little  rain 
that  agriculture  depends  upon  irrigation. 
Why  is  this  true  of  Greece  particularly? 
(p.  321.) 


Fig.  396. 
A  Roumanian  peasant. 


People.  —  The  eastern  point  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  comes  so  close  to  Asia  that  it  has 
been  called  a  "  bridge ''  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  At  each  of  two  points,  the  Dardanelles 
and  the  Bosporus,  the  continents  are  sepa- 
rated only  by  a  narrow  strait.  This  region 
has  also  been  a  bridge  for  the  passage  of  many 
peoples.  Romans,  various  tribes  of  Slavs, 
and  finally  the  Mohammedan  Turks  from 
Asia,  have  brought  the  peninsula  under  their 

dominion.  Wherever  the  Turks  went  they  brought  ruin;  and  for  four 
centuries,  while  the  rest  of  Europe  was  advancing,  they  held  this  region 
in  subjection. 

Aside  from  Roumania,  five  nations  now  occupy  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula :  Montenegro,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  the  Ottoman  Empire  or  Turkeys 
and  Greece ;  and  two  others,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  are  under 
control  of  Austria-Hungary  (p.  426). 

Montenegro. — This  tiny  principality,  which  is  smaller  than  the  state 
of  Connecticut,  has  maintained  its  independence  largely  because  of  its  sit- 
uation among  the  mountains.  The  country  is  of  slight  importance;  its 
soil  is  so  poor  that  there  is  little  agriculture ;  there  is  less  manufacturing, 
and  not  a  single  railway.    The  principal  occupation  is  cattle  raising. 

Servia.  —  Bordering  on  southern  Hungary,  Servia  shares  some  of 
the  advantages  of  that  country,  including  navigation  of  the  Danube. 
Since  much  of  its  surface  is  rugged  and  heavily  forested,  only  a 
small  portion  is  cultivated.  Among  the  leading  products  are  corn, 
wheat,  and  other  grains,  reminding  us  of  Hungary.  There  is  also 
much  fruit  raising,  particularly  that  of  grapes  and  plums,  which, 
when  dried,  are  sold  as  raisins  and  prunes.    Many  cattle,  sheep,  and 


430 


EUROPE 


pigs  are  raised  for  export,  the  pigs  being  allowed  to  roam  in  the  oak 
and  beech  forests.     Why  there  ? 

The  resources  of  Servia  are  only  partially  developed.  For  example, 
although  coal,  iron,  lead,  silver,  and  other  metals  are  known  to  exist, 
there  is  very  little  mining  and  not  much  manufacturing.  It  will 
require  more  time  to  recover  from  the  centuries  of  Turkish  misrule. 
The  capital  of  the  kingdom  is  Belgrade,  a  city  finely  situated 
upon  the  Danube. 

Roumania  and  Bulgaria.  —  These  two  countries  have  much  in 
common.  Althougli  the  Danube  separates  them  for  a  long  distance, 
they  together  control  its  lower  course.  This  is  a  fact  of  much  im- 
portance to  Austria-Hungary.  Why  ?  Broad  plains  suited  to  agri- 
culture border  the  Danube  in  both  countries,  though  the  plains  are 
far  more  extensive  in  Roumania  than  in  Bulgaria.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, there  is  much  farming.    While  each  of  these  kingdoms  has  been 

freed  from  Turkish  rule,  Bulgaria 
is  still  tributary  to  that  country; 
that  is,  although  in  most  respects 
independent  and  self-governing,  it 
is  obliged  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
in  money  to  Turkey. 

In  both  countries  wheat  and 
other  grains  are  grown.  But  the 
warmer  climate  of  that  part  of  Bul- 
garia south  of  the  Balkan  Mountains 
permits  the  culture  of  products  that 
cannot  be  raised  extensively  in 
Roumania ;  for  example,  the  mul- 
berry for  silk,  and  roses  for  the  valu- 
able perfume,  attar  of  roses.  Many 
sheep  as  well  as  other  live  stock  are 
raised  in  each  country ;  in  fact,  herd- 
ing is  almost  the  sole  industry  on 
the  barren  steppes  of  eastern  Rou- 
mania. There  are  large  tracts  of 
forest  in  each,  but  there  is  more  in  Bulgaria,  owing  to  its  rugged 
surface,  than  in  Roumania.  Each  country  has  valuable  mineral  de- 
posits;  but,  as  in  Servia,  there  is  little  mining.  Why?  Nor  is 
there  much  manufacturing,  except  such  hand  work  as  the  manufac- 
ture of  Turkish  rugs. 


Fig.  397. 

A  Turkish  lady  in  Constantinople 
street  dress. 


TURKEY 


481 


Bluck  Sea 


With  so  slight  development  of  the  resources,  there  are  few  large 
cities.  By  far  the  largest  is  Bucharest,  the  capital  of  Roumania. 
Find  the  capital  of  Bulgaria. 

Turkey  in  Europe.  —  The  Turks,  who  are  Mohammedans,  are 
controlled  by  ideas  very  unlike  those  of  other  Europeans.  They  are 
unprogressive  and  inclined  to  grant  no  rights  to  Christians,  many 
of  whom  still  live  in  Turkey.  Their  ruler  or  Sultan  has  absolute 
power,  which  he  exercises  with  little  conscience,  and  the  government 
is  the  worst  in  Europe. 

Not  only  are  the  mass  of  Turks  in  ignorance  and  poverty,  but  they 
are  not  encouraged  to  develop  the  resources  of  their  land.  There  are 
valuable  mineral  deposits,  practically  un  worked ;  the  great  forest  tracts 
have  been  nearly  destroyed ;  and  broad  areas  of  farm  land  are  cultivated 
by  the  use  of  oxen  and 
tame  buffaloes,  and  by  the 
crude  methods  of  early 
centuries.  Among  the  prin- 
cipal crops  are  v^heat,  corn, 
flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco. 
Figs,  and  grapes  for  raisins, 
are  also  raised.  Cattle  and 
sheep  are  numerous. 

As  in  other  slightly 
developed  states,  there  is 
little  production  beyond 
raw  materials ;  and  while 
other  nations  in  Europe 
have  rapidly  developed  in 
manufacturing,  Turkey 
produces  chiefly  hand-made 
goods.  Among  the  latter 
are  the  famous  Turkish  rugs,  and  some  very  beautiful  articles  in  leather 
and  metal,  showing  that  the  Turks  have  much  artistic  skill.  With  so 
little  industry  there  is  naturally  almost  no  means  of  transportation;  in 
fact,  the  roads  are  everywhere  bad,  and  railways  are  almost  lacking. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  has  been 
famous  for  many  centuries.  Being  situated  on  the  Bosporus,  where 
the  beautiful,  river-like  outlet  of  the  Black  Sea  passes  through  a 
valley  in  the  low  plateau,  it  commands  the  channel  through  which 
the  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea  must  pass.  This  is  a  natural  site  for 
a  city ;  for  in  addition  to  its  location  on  this  water  route,  it  is  the 
point  where  the  crossing  can  best  be  made  from  Europe  to  Asia. 
The  presence  of  a  harbor  on  the  European  side  —  a  small  bay  at  the 


Marmora 

Fig.  398. 
Map  showing  the  location  of  Constantinople. 


482 


EUROPE 


river  mouth  called  the  "  Golden  Horn  "  —  and  the  fact  that  the 
founders  were  Europeans  trading  in  Asia,  rather  than  Asiatics 
trading  in  Europe,  are  reasons  why  a  large  city  has  grown  on  the 
European  and  not  on  the  Asiatic  side. 

Greece.  —  The  southern  end  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  is  occupied 
by  Greece.  Owing  to  the  many  short  mountain  ranges  extending  in 
different  directions,  the  coast  line  is  irregular,  with  numerous  penin- 
sulas, islands,  deep  bays,  and  fine  harbors,  formed  by  the  sinking 
of  the  irregular  land.  The  influence  of  the  Mediterranean  causes  a 
warm,  pleasant  climate,  as  in  southern  Italy  ;  and  the  rainfall,  which 
is  moderate  in  winter,  is  so  light  in  summer  that  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary for  agriculture.  The  surface  is  so  rough  and  rocky  that  large 
sections  are  unfit  for  farming. 

It  was  in  this  small  peninsula,  under  what  to  our  eyes  appear 
to  be  very  unfavorable  conditions,  that  the  marvelous  civilization  of 
ancient  Hellas^  or  Greece,  was  developed.  But  these  conditions 
really  had  the  tendency  to  develop  strong  intellectual  powers  and 
brave  men.  The  sea  and  mountains  protected  the  races  from  in- 
vasion, and  the  many  fine  harbors   and   inlets  permitted  constant 


Fig.  399. 
St.  Sophia,  a  beautiful  church  in  Constantinople,  now  used  as  a  Mohammedan  mosque. 


GREECE 


438 


intercourse  by  water.  By  the  commerce  which  thus  arose  the 
Greeks  became  so  acquainted  with  the  sea  that  they  were  almost  as 
much  at  home  upon  it  as  upon  the  land. 


In  all  parts  of  the  world  it  has  been  under  such  conditions  as  these 
that  strong  races  have  been  developed.  It  was  true  in  Scandinavia,  in  the 
British  Isles,  and  in  the  Spanish  and  Italian  peninsulas.  It  is  also  true  in 
the  Japanese  Islands,  the  home  of  the  most  highly  developed  Asiatics. 

Because  of  their  ability  to  navigate  the  inland  seas,  the  European 
Greeks,  in  very  early  times,  carried  on  constant  communication  with  the 
people  from  whom  they  had  separated,  and  who  still  dwelt  opposite  them, 
on  the  coast  of  Asia.  The  arts  and  customs  of  their  mother  country  they 
improved  upon,  and  in  time  became  the 
greatest  power  in  the  then  known 
world.  They  developed  an  art  and  a 
civilization  which,  with  all  our  advance- 
ment, we  have  not  been  able  to  excel. 
They  also  became  explorers,  and  cruised 
about  the  entire  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean at  a  time  when  most  of  Europe 
was  occupied  by  savages  or  barbarians. 
They  entered  into  trade  relations  with 
their  neighbors,  taught  them  Greek  arts, 
and  established  many  colonies.  Greek 
arts  and  literature,  we  should  note,  de- 
cayed with  the  loss  of  freedom  in  the 
Greek  cities,  which  were  conquered  by 
barbarians  from  the  north. 

Through  colonies  in  the  Italian  pen- 
insula, and  also  through  the  immigration 
of  individual  Greeks,  this  people  exerted 
a  strong  influence  upon  the  Romans. 
Borne  finally  conquered  Greece, 
although  much  of  Boman  civilization,  and  therefore  the  civilization  of 
Europe,  was  due  to  Greek  thought.  After  the  decline  of  the  Boman 
Empire  other  northern  peoples  devastated  Greece,  and  finally  the  Turks 
entered  and  carried  ruin  to  this  as  to  other  parts  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula.    Greece  is  now  independent  and  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

In  this  little  country  there  are  few  natural  resources.  The  principal 
occupations  are  herding  and  agriculture.  Large  numbers  of  sheep  and 
goats  are  raised ;  and  the  chief  farm  products  are  grain,  tobacco,  olives, 
and  fruits.  Baisin  grapes  are  cultivated  in  large  quantities  on  the  steep 
hillsides. 

The  neighborhood  of  the  sea  has  led  the  Greeks  to  continue  their  sea- 
faring life.  Many  are  also  engaged  in  fisheries,  and  in  securing  bath 
sponges  from  the  shallow  sea  bottom  among  the  Greek  islands. 


Fig.  400. 
A  Greek  peasant  costume. 


434  EUROPE 

Athens,  the  capital  and  most  important  city,  with  about  one 
hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  is  situated  inland  six  miles  from 
its  port,  PiR^us.  The  principal  streets  of  the  present  city  are 
quite  modern,  but  ruins  of  the  ancient  Athens  are  still  numerous. 
The  most  noted  buildings,  and  some  of  the  finest  temples  of  ancient 


Fig.  401. 
A  view  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.    The  city  lies  back  of  the  hill. 

Greece,  stood  upon  the  Acropolis  (Fig.  401),  a  level-topped  rocky 
hill  with  precipitous  sides.  This  remarkable  stronghold  was  the 
natural  center  for  settlements  in  the  surrounding  plain. 

Islands  near  Greece.  —  The  many  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of  Greece 
are  either  mountain  crests  or  else  volcanic  cones.  Occasionally  we  hear  of 
an  earthquake  shock  in  this  island  region  or  archipelago,  showing  that  the 
mountains  are  still  growing.  The  largest  island  near  Greece,  and  the  last 
to  be  separated  from  Turkey  (1898),  is  Crete  (Fig.  353),  which,  like  the 
smaller  islands,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Grecian  government  and 
inhabited  mainly  by  Greeks.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  industries 
that  are  the  same  as  in  Greece  itself. 

Review  Questions.  —  (1)  Describe  the  physiography  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. (2)  Tell  about  the  climate.  (3)  State  some  of  the  main  facts  in  its  history. 
(4)  Name  the  countries  of  the  peninsula.  (5)  What  can  you  say  about  Monte- 
negro? (6)  Tell  about  Servia.  (7)  In  what  respects  do  Bulgaria  and  Roumania 
resemble  each  other  ?  (8)  Mention  some  differences.  (9)  Locate  the  capitals. 
(10)  Tell  about  Turkey  in  Europe  :  character  of  the  people ;  government ;  resources  ; 
manufacturing.  (11)  What  special  reasons  are  there  for  a  large  city  at  Constan- 
tinople?    (12)  Describe  Greece:    its  physiography;  climate;  reasons  for  former 


REVIEW    OF  EUROPE  436 

importance;  influence;  reasons  for  decline;  present  condition;  resources.  (13)  T«ll 
about  Athens.    (14)  What  can  you  tell  about  the  islands  near  Greece  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for  the  fact  that  these 
eastern  countries  are  in  a  constant  state  of  unrest?  (2)  The  Turkish  Empire  is 
occasionally  referred  to  as  the  "  sick  man  of  the  East."  Why  ?  (3)  How  was  Greece 
well  situated  for  the  trade  of  the  ancient  world?  (4)  Learn  some  facts  about 
Homer,  Plato,  and  other  noted  Greeks.    (5)  Read  some  of  the  ancient  Greek  myths. 

REVIEW  OF  EUROPE  AND  COMPARISON  WITH  NORTH  AMERICA 

For  area,  population,  etc.,  see  Appendix 

(1)  Compare  the  climate  of  western  Europe  with  that  of  the  west  coast  of 
North  America  (p.  321).  (2)  Make  the  same  comparison  for  the  east  coast  of 
North  America.  (3)  What  European  countries  were  covered  either  wholly 
or  partly  by  an  ice  sheet  in  the  Glacial  Period?  (Fig.  306.)  (4)  Is  the  coast  line 
of  Europe  more  or  less  irregular  than  that  of  North  America?  Which  continent 
has  the  advantage  in  this  respect?  How  is  it  an  advantage?  (5)  Name  and 
locate  the  principal  mountain  ranges  in  each  continent.  Which  continent  has  the 
advantage  as  to  the  direction  of  the  ranges?  Why?  (p.  323.)  (6)  Name  and  locate 
the  principal  rivers  in  each  continent.  Which  are  the  largest?  (7)  Draw  an  out- 
line map  of  Europe,  inserting  the  boundaries  and  names  of  the  countries.  (8)  How 
do  our  larger  Western  states  compare  in  area  with  France  and  Germany  ?  In  popu- 
lation ?  (9)  Which  are  the  two  or  three  most  progressive  countries  ?  Give  reasons. 
(10)  What  is  the  prevailing  kind  of  government  in  Europe?  In  North  America? 
How  do  you  account  for  the  difference?  (11)  Which  European  country  has,  per- 
haps, the  best  location  for  world  commerce  ?  Why  ?  (12)  Which  is  best  situated 
for  continental  commerce  ?  Why  ?  (p.  390.)  (13)  Which  country  of  North  Amer- 
ica has  the  most  favorable  position  for  trade  ?  How  ?  (14)  Compare  the  five 
largest  European  cities  with  the  five  largest  in  North  America.  (15)  State  the 
main  advantages  of  the  position  of  each.  (16)  Name  and  locate  the  five  largest 
seaports  of  Europe  (Fig.  353).  (17)  How  do  they  compare  in  population  with 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Baltimore,  and  San  Francisco  ?  (18)  Name  and 
locate  the  five  largest  interior  cities  and  compare  their  population  with  that  of 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  Cincinnati.  (19)  What  cities  of  Europe 
and  North  America  are  near  the  46th  parallel  of  latitude?  The  50th?  The  60th? 
(20)  Name  some  agricultural  products  common  to  both  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  (21)  Name  others  that  are  found  in  the  United  States  but  not  in  Europe. 
Why  this  difference?  (22)  In  what  countries  of  Europe  is  silk  produced?  Do 
we  raise  silkworms  in  the  United  States?  (23)  In  what  countries  are  sugar 
beets  produced  extensively?    (24)  In  what  countries  is  most  lumber  obtained? 

(25)  Make  a  list  of  the  European  countries  which  have  extensive  coal  deposits. 

(26)  Which  countries  have  little  or  none  ?  What  is  the  effect  on  the  industries  in 
each  case  ?  (27)  Which  countries  have  little  or  no  mining  ?  (28)  Which  countries 
have  important  manufacturing  industries?  Which  have  very  little?  Give  the 
reasons  for  this  difference.  (29)  With  which  group  would  the  United  States  be 
classed  with  regard  to  mining  and  maimfacturing?  (30)  Which  of  the  European 
nationalities  have  you  seen  represented  on  our  streets  ?  (31)  Write  a  paper  stating 
some  of  the  advantages  that  we  enjoy  over  European  countries.  (32)  State  some 
of  the  advantages  that  they  enjoy  over  us.  (33)  Which  one  of  the  European 
countries  would  you  prefer  to  visit  ?    Why  ? 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Booh, 


WiQo  i04t.    Seme  of  the  animals  of  Asia. 


Fig.  405. 
The  volcano  of  Fujiyama  in  Japan. 


Fig.  406. 
The  gorge  of  the  Yangtse-kiang  in  China. 


487 


Fia.  407. 
Native  humped  cattle  used  as  draught  animals  in  Burma. 


Fig.  408. 


Spinning  as  done  in  Palestine  and  other  parts  of  Turkey. 


Paet  Y 

ASIA,   AFEICA,    AUSTRALIA,    AND    ISLAND 

GROUPS 


I.     ASIA 

Size  and  Position.  —  Asia,  the  largest  of  the  continents,  includes 
almost  one  third  of  the  land  of  the  globe.  Its  immense  size  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  it  reaches  from  near  the  equator  to  a  point  halfway 
between  thQ  Arctic  Circle  and  the  North  Pole.  How  many  degrees 
is  that?  How  many  miles?  It  is  six  thousand  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  to  Bering  Straits  ;  and  so  many  degrees  of 
longitude  are  included  in  Asia  that,  according  to  our  plan  for  stand- 
ard time,  one  would  need  to  change  his  watch  ten  different  times  in 
going  from  one  extreme  to  the  other.  How  many  changes  are  neces- 
sary in  crossing  the  United  States  ?  (Fig.  38.) 

This  great  land  mass,  which  reaches  to  within  fifty  miles  of  North 
America,  is  united  to  Africa  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  while  for  a  long 
distance  the  two  continents  are  separated  only  by  the  narrow  Red  Sea. 
What  is  its  connection  with  Europe  ?  Why  are  the  two  often  called 
Eurasia  ?  (p.  317.)  In  what  zones  does  Asia  lie  ?  Is  the  same  true  of 
any  other  continent  ? 

Physiography  and  Climate  (Fig.  402).  —  Asia  resembles  Europe 
in  the  irregularity  of  its  mountains.  While  many  of  them  extend 
east  and  west,  there  are  others  running  nearly  north  and  south. 
Name  some  of  each.  The  islands  and  peninsulas  are  due  to  uplift 
of  the  earth's  crust,  while  the  seas  which  they  inclose  occupy  depres- 
sions between  the  uplifted  parts.  Since  the  mountain  growth  has 
not  ceased,  many  of  the  islands  are  still  slowly  rising  or  sinking ;  and 
as  the  rocks  move  and  break,  earthquake  shocks  are  common,  some 

48W 


440 


ASIA 


of  them  being  terribly  destructive.  There  are  also  many  volcanoes 
(Fig.  405)  ;  in  fact,  the  islands  off  eastern  and  southeastern  Asia 
form  the  most  active  volcanic  and  earthquake  region  in  the  world. 

Although  northern  and  western  Asia  is  a  vast  plain,  so  much  of  the 
continent  is  mountainous  that  more  than  one  twelfth  of  the  surface  has  an 
elevation  above  10,000  feet.  Here  are  found  the  Himalayas  (meaning 
abode  of  snow),  of  which  the  loftiest  peak,  Mt.  Everest  (29,000  feet),  is 
the  highest  in  the  world.    Locate  it.    And  here,  too,  are  ranges  with  peaks 


Fig.  409. 
A  tropical  scene  iu  a  village  in  Ceylon. 

rising  above  valleys  which  are  themselves  11,000  feet  above  the  sea,  or 
higher  than  most  mountains.  Between  the  mountains  are  tablelands,  like 
that  of  Tibet,  the  elevation  of  which  is  from  10,000  to  15,000  feet,  or  in 
places  as  high  as  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Alps. 

Much  of  central  Asia  is  so  arid  that  some  of  the  rivers  from  the  moun- 
tains end  in  the  desert  sands,  which  are  often  heaped  by  the  wind  into 
low  hills  or  dunes.  But  from  the  margin  of  the  great  central  highland 
large  rivers  flow  north,  south,  and  east  to  the  sea.  On  an  outline  map  of 
Asia  draw  heavy  lines  to  show  the  chief  mountain  chains,  and  then  add 
the  large  rivers  with  their  names.  Fed  by  the  rains,  snows,  and  melting 
glaciers  of  the  mountains,  these  streams  have  a  great  volume  of  water  and 
bear  immense  quantities  of  sediment,  which  they  spread  out  over  their 
broad  flood  plains  or  build  into  deltas  in  the  sea.  In  the  east  and  south 
these  fertile,  river-made  plains  are  valuable  for  agriculture,  and  are  the 
seats  of  the  densest  populations  in  the  whole  world. 

Many  of  the  rivers  are  deep  and  navigable  (Fig.  406) ;  yet  some  of  the 
largest  lose  much  of  their  value  for  transportation  because  they  flow  north- 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


441 


ward  over  the  cold  plains  of  Siberia.  This  reminds  us  of  the  rivers  of 
northern  Canada,  which  also  flow  into  the  Arctic,  and  are  therefore  frozen 
during  a  large  part  of  the  year. 

In  so  vast  a  land,  with  such  differences  in  elevation,  there  are, 
naturally,  many  different  climates.  Tropical  heat  is  found  in  south- 
ern Asia,  with  dense  forests  in  the  belt  of  calms  (Fig.  409)  and  in 
those  places  where  ocean  winds  blow  over  the  land  ;  but  where 
winds  from  the  ocean  cannot  come,  there  are  broad  deserts.  Upon 
the  mountain  slopes  and  in  the  more  northern  latitudes,  the  climate 
is  either  temperate  or  frigid,  as  in  North  America  and  Europe. 


For  example,  the  climate  about  Peking  resembles  that  of  northeastern 
United  States ;  and  the  plains  of  central  Siberia  resemble  in  climate  the 
plains  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota,  and  produce  the  same  crops.  Such  a 
climate,  with  warm  summers  and  very  cold  winters,  is  called  continental; 
and  since  Asia  is  the  largest  continent,  the  continental  climate  is  best 
developed  there.  Thus  where  the 
Arctic  Circle  crosses  the  Lena 
Eiver,  the  average  temperature  is 
60°  in  July  and  60°  below  zero  in 
January,  a  range  of  120°  between 
summer  and  winter.  This  is  the 
lowest  winter  temperature  known 
in  the  world,  and  this  point  is  there- 
fore called  the  cold  pole  of  the  earth. 


Plants  and  Animals.  —  The 
cold  northern  part  of  Siberia, 
like  northern  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, is  a  vast  expanse  of  frozen 
ground,  called  tundra.  Toward 
the  south  the  tundra  grades  into 
the  forest,  low,  stunted  trees 
being  followed  by  true  forests  of 
evergreens,  birches,  poplars,  etc. 

Farther  south,  where  the  rainfall  is  light  and  the  evaporation  rapid 
because  of  the  higher  temperature,  the  soil  is  so  dry  in  summer  that 
the  forests  disappear.  These  steppes  are  covered  with  luxuriant 
grass  in  the  north,  but  farther  south  they  grade  into  the  desert.  Since 
northern  Asia  is  really  a  continuation  of  Europe,  the  wild  plants  and 
animals,  as  well  as  the  farm  products,  resemble  those  of  Europe. 

In  southern  Asia,  on  the  other  hand^  from  Arabia  to  China,  the 


Fig.  410. 

The  banyan,  or  Indian  fig  tree,  from  whoso 
lower  branches  shoots  descend  and  take 
root — common  in  Ceylon  and  other  parts 
of  southern  Asia. 


44^ 


A8IA 


plants  and  animals  resemble  those  of  Africa  rather  than  those  of 
Europe  and  northern  Asia.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  southern 
Asia  has  a  tropical  climate  like  Africa  ;  another  is  that  a  mountain 
and  desert  barrier  separates  northern  from  southern  Asia.  Trace  this 
barrier  on  Figure  402.  As  in  Africa,  the  arid  portion,  including 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  central  Asia,  is  the  home  of  the  camel  (Fig. 
404)  and  ostrich  (Fig.  442),  while  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros 
(Fig.  404)  live  on  the  savannas  and  in  the  tropical  jungles.  South- 
ern Asia  is  also  the  home  of  the  fierce  tiger  and  numerous  species 
of  monkeys  and  apes  (Fig.  404). 

The  extent  to  which  the  Asiatic  people  have  employed  animals  in  their 
service  is  indicated  by  the  following  facts.  On  the  frozen  tundras,  where 
none  of  the  other  large  domesticated  animals  thrive,  the  reindeer  not  only 
supplies  milk,  meat,  and  hides,  but  is  also  used  as  a  work  animal.  The 
camel,  whose  original  home  seems  to  have  been  Asia,  makes  human  habi- 
tation possible  in  the  desert  (Figs.  404  and  419).  Elephants  are  domesti- 
cated and  made  to  work  in  the  dense  tropical  forest  (Figs.  411  and  427) ; 
and  the  buffalo  is  used  as  a  work  animal  in  hot,  damp  lands  where  horses 
find  the  climate  trying  (Fig.  441).  Among  the  lofty  plateaus  and  moun- 
tains, where  the  air  is  so  rarefied  and  the  slopes  so  steep  that  other  work 
animals  cannot  be  used,  the  yak  is  domesticated.  Upon  the  steppes,  where 
herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  kept,  the  horse  is  so  necessary  to  the 
herder  that  the  men  almost  live  in  the  saddle.  Indeed,  the  word  Cossack, 
applied  to  Russians  who  dwell  on  the  steppes,  means  horseman. 


Fig.  411. 
An  elephant  in  Ceylon  drawing  a  cart  loaded  with  cocoanuts. 


PEOPLE 


448 


People.  —  Early  progress  toward  civilization  was  made  possible  in 
Asia  largely  because  certain  portions  were  so  favorably  situated. 
The  flood  plains  of  the  Euphrates  and  of  the  Indian  and  Chinese 
rivers  had  a  fertile  soil  and  an  abundance  of  water  for  irrigation. 
They  were,  moreover,  protected  from  invasion  by  ocean,  desert,  and 
mountain  barriers,  and  the  inhabitants  could  therefore  cultivate  the 
arts  of  peace.  Among  the  shut-in  valleys  of  the  lofty  mountains, 
also,  were  centers  where  de- 
velopment was  possible 
because  so  protected  from 
wandering  hordes. 

Asiatic  peoples,  moving 
into  Europe,  carried  the 
civilization  of  their  old  home 
with  them,  and  in  time  ad- 
vanced much  beyond  those 
whom  they  left  behind.  In 
fact,  while  Europeans  have 
been  progressing,  the  Asiat- 
ics have  been  standing  still, 
or  even  falling  b2,ck. 

One  reason  for  this  last 
fact  is  the  very  isolation  which 
made  the  first  development 
possible;  for  the  people  were 
so  cut  off  and  separated  geo- 
graphically that  they  failed  to  learn  from  others,  as  those  Europeans 
who  dwelt  along  the  Mediterranean  were  able  to  do.  A  second  reason 
is  that  many  Asiatics,  like,  for  example,  the  Chinese,  have  felt  that 
their  civilization  was  the  best,  and  have  therefore  refused  to  learn. 
A  third  reason  is  found  in  the  wonderful  development  of  navigation  by 
Europeans. 


Fig.  412. 
Japanese  rain  coats. 


More  than  half  of  the  human  race  live  in  Asia,  two  thirds 
of  them  belonging  to  the  yellow  division  (p.  277),  while  the  re- 
mainder are  mainly  whites.  But  although  there  are  more  than 
eight  hundred  million  human  beings  there,  most  of  the  continent 
js  sparsely  settled.  The  mountain  slopes,  the  cold  plateaus,  the 
steppes,  deserts,  forests,  and  tundras  support  but  few  inhabit- 
ants. Nearly  seven  eighths  of  the  people  dwell  near  the  coast, 
especialljr  on  the  river  flood  plains  and  deltas  of  the  south  and  east. 


444  ^^^^ 

There  almost  every  foot  of  available  land  is  cultivated,  and  soil  is 
even  transferred  to  boats  on  the  rivers. 

Turkish  or  Ottoman  Empire.  —  While  Constantinople,  the  capital 
of  the  Turkish  Empire,  is  in  Europe,  Turkey  has  ten  times  as  much 
land  in  Asia  as  in  Europe. 

Conditions  in  the  Empire.  —  Turkey  in  Asia,  although  of  little 
importance  among  nations  at  the  present  time,  is  of  peculiar  inter- 
est to  us  because  of  its  historical  associations.  It  is  within  its 
territory  that  many  of  the  places  mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  located 
(Fig.  416)  ;  here  also  Christ  was  born,  as  well  as  the  prophet  Moham- 
med ;  and  it  was  from  this  center  that  much  of  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tion spread  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Much  of  Turkey  in  Asia  is  table-land,  with  short  mountain  ranges 
and  extinct  volcanoes,  of  which  Mt.  Ararat  is  an  example.  Except 
along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  seas,  where  the 
wind  brings  vapor,  there  is  little  rainfall.  The  streams  are  usually 
short  and  shallow,  and  there  are  numerous  salt  lakes.  Point  out  the 
two  principal  rivers  (Fig.  403). 

Some  of  the  mountain  slopes  are  forested,  but  elsewhere  the  coun- 
try is  open,  and  in  places  suited  to  herding  and  agriculture.  In  the 
valleys,  wheat,  grapes,  olives,  figs,  oranges,  and  cotton  are  raised, 
usually  by  the  aid  of  irrigation.  Smyrna  is  the  most  important 
seaport.     Locate  it.     Find  Trebizond. 


The  inhabitants,  though  so  near  Europe,  have  not  advanced  as  Euro- 
peans have.  The  valuable  minerals  are  scarcely  worked  at  all ;  herding 
and  farming  are  carried  on  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the  time  of  Christ ; 
and  there  is  practically  no  manufacturing  except  that  done  by  hand  (Fig. 
408).  Some  of  this  work,  however,  is  very  beautiful,  as,  for  example,  the 
Turkish  rugs  already  mentioned  (p.  431). 

The  unfortunate  history  of  the  region  furnishes  an  explanation  of  its 
lack  of  development.  Asia  Minor,  the  peninsula  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Black  seas,  was  the  pathway  for  the  ancient  caravan  trade 
between  Europe  and  Asia.  While  this  brought  prosperity,  it  also  led  to 
many  invasions.  More  than  five  centuries  before  Christ  the  country  was 
conquered  by  the  Persians ;  two  centuries  later  it  came  under  the  control 
of  the  Greeks;  and  later  still  it  became  a  part  of  the  Koman  Empire. 
After  that,  with  the  decline  of  the  Eoman  Empire,  came  invasions  by 
wandering  Turks,  Tartars,  and  others.  It  was  by  this  route  that  the 
Mohammedan  Turks  gained  a  foothold  in  southwestern  Europe,  and  by 
their  occupation  devastated  the  country.  Notwithstanding  Mohammedan 
persecution^  many  of  the  inhabitants  Still  profess  the  Christian  religion, 


Fig.  413. 
The  river  Jordan 


Fig.  414. 
Tiberias  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee 


FiG.416 


TURKISH    EMPIRE 


445 


although  at  great  cost,  as  is  proved  by  the  frequent  massacres  of  the 
Armenians. 

There  are  two  parts  of  Turkey  in  Asia  that  merit  special  men- 
tion ;  namely,  the  Holi/  Land^  and  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  rivers,  or  Mesopotamia. 

The  Holy  Land  (Fig.  416).  — This  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia  pos- 
sesses peculiar  interest  for  us.  Back  of  a  straight  coast,  with  no  good 
harbors,  lies  a  narrow  coastal  plain,  beyond  which  are  two  low  moun- 
tain ranges  including  between  them  the  remarkable  depression  in 
which  the  Dead  Sea  is  situated.  While  Hebron  (Fig.  416)  is  about 
three  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  few 
miles  to  the  east,  is  almost  thirteen  hundred  feet  below  sea  level,  being 
the  deepest  depression  on  the  lands  of  the  world.  Although  fed  by 
the  river  Jordan  (Fig.  413),  which  flows  out  of  a  fresh- water  lake,  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  (Fig.  414),  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  so  dense  from 
the  salt  it  contains  that  a  person  cannot  sink  in  it.  The  Jordan 
Valley  lies  no  farther  south  than  southern  Alabama  ;  yet  since  it  is  so 
low  and  inclosed,  its  climate  is  almost  tropical. 

Before  the  coming  of  the  Jews  this  region  was  divided  into  small 
countries,  often  under  the  rule  of  their  more  advanced  and  powerful 
neighbors,  the  Egyptians.  Then  th«  Jews  entered  this  "  promised  land  " 
and  created  a  king- 
dom which  attained 
its  greatest  power 
under  Solomon.  It 
was  here  that  many 
of  the  events  in 
the  Old  Testament 
occurred,  including 
the  advance  in  re- 
ligion from  the 
belief  in  many  gods 
to  the  acceptance  of 
one  all-powerful 
God.  Persians, 
Egyptians,  and  Ro- 
mans later  ruled 


Fig.  415. 
A  part  of  Bethlehem. 


over  Palestine,  and  it  was  during  the  control  of  the  latter  people  that  Christ 
was  born  at  Bethlehem.  What  events  in  the  life  of  Christ  can  you  mention 
that  occurred  at  some  of  the  places  marked  on  the  map  ?     (Fig-  416.) 

At  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  as  we  learn  from  the  Bible,  the 
region  was  highly  developed.  Wheat  was  raised  upon  the  uplands,  and 
olives,  figs,  and  grapes  in  the  valleys,  while  herds  of  sheep  roamed  over 


446 


ASIA 


the  plateaus  and  mountains.  Palestine  lay  on  the  great  caravan  route 
which,  leading  from  Egypt  to  the  distant  East,  ran  northward  as  far  as 
Damascus  (Fig.  403)  in  order  to  avoid  the  Syrian  desert.  Throngs  of 
people,  therefore,  passed  this  way.  Jerusalem  (Fig.  417),  the  capital, 
was  a  great  city,  situated  upon  a  lofty  elevation  that  made  it  an  impor- 
tant stronghold. 

The  city  is  now  visited  by  many  Christians,  and  also  by  Mohammedan 
pilgrims  who  believe  that  Mohammed  ascended  to  heaven  there.  Very 
little  of  importance  is  to  be  seen,  for  much  of  the  country,  once  "  flowing 
with  milk  and  honey,''  is  in  ruins.     Even  the  usual  mode  of  travel  is  by 


Fig.  417. 
A  view  in  Jerusalem. 

mule  or  camel,  as  in  olden  times,  although  a  short  railway  climbs  the 
mountains  from  the  seacoast  at  Joppa  to  Jerusalem,  and  another  has 
been  begun,  following  the  old  caravan  route  through  Nazareth,  past 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  to  Damascus.  Trace  these  two  lines.  According  to 
the  scale  (Fig.  416),  what  is  the  length  of  Palestine  ?     The  breadth  ? 

Mesopotamia.  — This  region,  including  the  fertile  valleys  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers,  has  suffered  the  same  fate  as  the  rest  of 
Turkey  in  Asia.  Formerly  a  country  of  great  resources,  crossed  by 
a  network  of  irrigation  canals,  "  a  garden  of  the  Lord,"  it  has  been 
devastated  by  the  Arabs  and  Turks  until  it  is  now  almost  a  waste. 
Babylon  and  Nineveh,  once  the  seats  of  a  wonderful  civilization,  are 
now  marked  only  by  mounds  of  ruins.  From  these  ruins  records 
are  at  present  being  unearthed  which  promise  to  throw  much  light 
upon  ancient  history. 


ARABIA 


447 


Under  such  condition  there  can  be  little  commerce,  though  tht 
Tigris  is  navigable  with  steamboats  as  far  up  as  Bagdad.  This 
city,  situated  on  the  caravan  route  to  the  east,  was  of  much  impor- 
tance in  ancient  times.  There  is  still  some  trade  between  Europe 
and  India  along  this  route. 

Arabia.  —  This  peninsula  is  a  plateau  several  thousand  feet  in 
elevation,  with  a  fringe  of  mountains  (Fig.  418),  most  prominent 
in  the  south  and  west.  What  waters  border  Arabia?  Since  the 
coast  line  is  wonderfully  regular,  there  are  few  harbors  and  there- 
fore few  coastal  cities.  Nevertheless,  the  inclosed  seas  favored  the 
early  development  of  navigation  here  as  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Therefore  in  very  early  times  Arabian  ships  carried  on  commerce 
with  Africa,  India,  and  even  with  eastern  Asia. 

The  climate  is  hot  along  the  coast,  but  cool  on  the  plateau  and 
among  the  mountains.  A  great  part  of  the  interior  is  desert,  and 
almost  everywhere  the  rainfall  is  light.  Why?  (p.  253.)  What 
about  large  rivers  ?  Coffee  is  raised  in  the  southwest,  near  Mocha  ; 
the  date  palm  flourishes  in  many  places ;  and  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  produced  in  many  of  the  valleys. 

In  so  unfavorable  a  climate  the  population  is  necessarily  sparse  and 
largely  nomadic.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  donkeys,  and  drome- 
daries are  raised  in  large  numbers. 


Fia.  418. 
A.  new  ftmong  the  Arabian  mountains 


448 


ASIA 


Mecca,  a  Turkish  city  about  fifty  miles  from  the  sea,  is  sacred  to  all 
Mohammedans.  It  was  here  that  Mohammed  was  born,  and  every  Moham- 
medan is  supposed  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  it  at  least  once  during  his  life- 
time. Most  of  these  pilgrims  come  by  sea,  and  every  year  the  city,  as 
well  as  the  roads  leading  to  it,  are  crowded  with  them. 

Persia.  —  Like  Arabia,  Persia  is  an  elevated  tableland  with  large 
tracts  of  desert  and  salt  steppes  of  little  or  no  use  to  man.  The 
arid  climate  prevents  the  formation  of  large  rivers  ;  but  the  rains 


Fig.  419. 
A  drove  of  camels  in  Persia. 

and  snows  of  the  parallel  mountain  ranges  permit  some  irrigation  in 
the  broad  valleys.  There  is  so  little  rainfall,  however,  and  evapora- 
tion is  so  rapid  during  the  hot,  dry  summer,  that  water  for  irrigation 
is  often  led  from  the  mountains  in  underground  tunnels.  Why  are 
tunnels  preferable  to  ditches  ? 

The  main  farm  products  are  tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  cotton,  and 
opium.  Much  silk  is  also  produced,  and  roses  are  cultivated  for 
the  manufacture  of  attar  of  roses.  The  principal  agricultural 
portion  is  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  there  is  sufficient  rainfall 
for  crops  and  also  for  extensive  forests  on  the  mountain  slopes. 
Among  the  mineral  deposits  is  the  precious  stone  turquoise  ;  but 
although  there  are  doubtless  other  valuable  minerals,  there  is  little 
mining.  Along  the  coast  of  both  Arabia  and  Persia  precious  pearls 
and  pearl  shells  are  found. 

Nearly  two  million  Persians  belong  to  nomadic  tribes  (Figs.  419  and 
420)  which  roam  about  the  desert,  dwelling  in  tents,  and  herding  goats, 
sheep,  and  other  animals.     There  is  no  extensive  manufacturing,  but  the 


AFGHANISTAN 


449 


Persians,  like  the  Turks,  do  some  very  beautiful  hand  weaving,  as,  for 
example,  shawls  and  rugs.  Their  carving  and  inlaid  metal  and  wood 
work  are  also  wonderfully  artistic. 

The  government  of  Persia  resembles  that  of  Turkey,  and  is 
therefore  very  bad.  The  ruler,  or  Shah,  an  absolute  monarch,  controls 
the  lives  and  property 
of  his  subjects,  who 
are  mostly  Moham- 
medans. Teheran, 
the  capital,  has  some 
beautiful  mosques, 
though  the  dwelling- 
houses  are  made  of 
sun-dried  bricks  and 
face  narrow,  filthy 
streets. 


Afghanistan .  — This 
country,  "one  of  the 
waste  places  of  the 
world,"  is  a  region  of 
sand,  bare  rocks,  and 
snow-capped  moun- 
tains. Only  in  the  val- 
leys is  the  soil  made  to 
yield  a  harvest;  and 
even  there  the  cold, 
blustering  winters  and 
the  dry,  scorching  sum- 


FiG.  420. 
A  Persian  nomad  girl. 


mers  make  one  of  the  worst  of  climates.  Life  under  such  unfavorable 
conditions  has  developed  a  people  noted  for  hardiness,  stubbornness, 
bravery,  and  cruelty. 

As  in  other  Asiatic  countries  so  far  studied,  the  government  is  very 
bad.  The  ruler,  the  merciless  Amir,  holds  his  authority  by  means  of  the 
terror  which  he  inspires.  His  seat  of  government  is  at  Kabul,  nestled 
among  lofty  mountains.  Since  Great  Britain  has  pushed  her  Indian 
frontier  northward,  while  Russia  has  encroached  on  the  opposite  side 
of  Afghanistan,  this  country  is  often  called  the  "  buffer  state "  between 
these  two  rival  powers. 

Russia  in  Asia.  —  This  vast  section  of  the  Russian  Empire  in- 
cludes about  one  eighth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  There  are 
several  divisions,  such  as  Turkestan  and  the  dependencies  of  Bok- 
hara and  Khiva  ;  but  by  far  the  largest  is  Siberia,  which  is  a  million 


450 


ASIA 


square  miles  larger  than  Europe,  and  even  larger  than  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  combined.  Yet  it  has  less  than 
one  twelfth  as  many  inhabitants  as  the  United  States  alone.  It  is 
cold,  bleak  tundra  in  the  north,  and  arid  steppe  in  the  south,  while  in 
the  east  are  lofty  plateaus  and  mountains.  But  in  the  central  part  is 
a  broad  belt  of  agricultural  country,  and  much  forest-covered  land. 
In  the  past  Siberia  has  attained  a  reputation  mainly  as  a  source 
of  minerals,  and  as  a  place  of  exile  for  Russians  whom  the  govern- 
ment wishes  to  dispose  of  for  political  or  other  reasons.     Gold  has 


Fig.  421. 

A  village  in  Siberia. 

been  found  in  a  number. of  places,  as  in  the  Urals  and  near  Lake 
Baikal,  the  largest  fresh-water  lake  on  the  continent.  But  while 
there  is  much  mineral  wealth  in  Siberia,  there  has  been  little  mining, 
except  in  the  western  part  near  Russia. 

The  defeat  of  Russia  in  the  great  war  with  Japan  (1904-05),  by 
turning  the  minds  of  the  Russians  from  schemes  of  conquest  to  the 
promotion  of  the  arts  of  peace,  may  prove  of  the  greatest  advantage 
to  her  great  Eastern  Empire. 

A  new  era  seems  about  to  open  for  this  vast  empire,  for  the  Russian 
government  is  now  constructing  extensive  railways  which  will  open  up 
the  country  for  development.  One  system  extends  eastward  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  to  Turkestan  (Fig.  403),  while  another  and  longer  one 
reaches  from  Russia  in  Europe  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Trace  it  on  Fig- 
ure 403.  Hitherto  transportation  across  the  vast  plans,  arid  steppes,  and 
rugged  eastern  mountains  has  been  difficult  in  the  extreme. 

But  by  the  building  of  railways  we  may  expect  a  rapid  development 
of  Siberia,  whose  resources  are  far  greater  than  the  sparseness  of  the 
population  would  indicate. 


INDIA  451 

There  are  some  important  cities  in  Russia  in  Asia.  The  largest 
in  the  southwest  is  Tashkend,  which  is  about  the  size  of  Toledo, 
Ohio.  TiFLis,  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  is  really  in  Asia, 
though  the  Russian  government  classes  this  region  with  its  European 
provinces.  It  is  about  the  size  of  Tashkend.  There  is  a  number 
of  other  cities  with  a  .population  of  fifty  to  a  hundred  thousand. 
In  Siberia  there  are  no  large  cities,  though  several  along  the  railway, 
including  Irkutsk  and  Vladivostok,  are  now  growing  rapidly. 

India.  — This  densely  populated  peninsula,  with  its  warm  cli- 
mate, offers  a  striking  contrast  to  cold,  sparsely  populated,  and 
slightly  developed  Siberia. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  Lying  largely  in  the  torrid  zone,  the 
Indian  peninsula  has  a  hot  climate.  Its  position  in  the  trade-wind 
belt  might  lead  us  to  expect  much  desert,  especially  on  the  lee  or 
western  side.  But  this  coast  really  has  a  heavy  rainfall  because  it  is 
reached  by  the  summer  monsoons  (Fig.  262).  In  the  winter,  how- 
ever, when  the  winds  blow 
from  the  land,  the  climate 
is  so  dry  that  plants  wither ; 
and  in  Baluchistan,  which 
is  not  affected  by  the  sum- 
mer monsoons,  there  is  true 
desert.  Southern  India  and 
Ceylon,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  a  heavy  rainfall  at  all 
seasons.     Why? 

India,  which   is   in   the 
form  of  a  triangle,  has  a  re- 
markably regular  coast  and  ^**^^^'  ^^  '^'  ^^'^"^''^  ''^^^'^' 
therefore  few  good  harbors.    Most  of  the  peninsula  is  a  plateau,  rarely 
more  than  two  thousand  feet  high,  and  largely  covered  with  lava  flows 
like  those  of  the  Columbia  River  valley  of  western  United  States. 

North  of  the  plateau  is  a  broad  lowland  occupied  by  the  Brahma- 
putra, Ganges,  and  Indus  rivers,  which,  like  the  Po  of  Italy,  have 
built  the  plains  out  of  sediment  brought  from  the  mountains. 
Among  the  lofty  mountains  which  lie  to  the  north  of  the  river 
plains,  the  highest  are  the  Himalayas,  in  which  there  are  scores 
of  peaks  that  reach  an  altitude  of  over  four  miles.  Even  the  moun- 
tain passes  are  from  seventeen  to  nineteen  thousand  feet  above  sea 
level,  or  much  higher  than  Mt.  Blanc  in  the  Alps, 


452 


ASIA 


Farming.  —  This  mountain  system  has  formed  a  northward  bar- 
rier to  British  conquest,  as  in  former  days  it  served  as  a  barrier  to 
invasion  from  nomadic  hordes  which  overran  Asia  Minor.  With 
such  protection  the  fertile  plains  and  deltas  of  the  three  great  rivers 
became  the  seat  of  early  civilization.  From  the  very  earliest  times 
the  people  have  been  engaged  in  farming,  and  at  present  fully  three 
fifths  of  the  population  follow  that  occupation. 

As  there  are  287,000,000  inhabitants  in  an  area  of  about  1,559,000 
square  miles,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  an  average  of  184  persons  for 
every  square  mile ;  and  in  parts  of  the  country  there  are  500  per  square 
mile.  The  density  of  population  may  be  better  understood  by  remember- 
ing that  there  are  only  twenty  persons  per  square  mile  in  the  United  States. 
There  are,  in  fact,  almost  as  many  people  in  India  as  in  North  America 
South  America,  and  Africa  together. 

Millet,  which  grows  on  the  drier  lands,  and  rice,  which  is  raised 
on  the  river  lowlands  where  the  land  can  be  flooded,  are  the  staple 
foods  of  the  natives.  After  the  dense  population  is  fed,  however, 
little  is  left  for  export.  Wheat,  on  the  other  hand,  is  raised  for  ex- 
port, and  Indi^  is  a  vast  granary  for  Great  Britain.  Much  cotton  is 
also  produced.  Some  of  this  is  manufactured  into  coarse  fabrics 
for  use  at  home  and  for  export  to  China  and  Africa ;    but  much  is 

exported  as  raw  cotton  for 
use  in  the  cotton  mills  of 
Great  Britain.  Other  agri- 
cultural products  are  tea, 
sugar  cane,  tobacco,  opium 
obtained  from  a  species  of 
poppy,  indigo  of  value  as  a 
dye,  and  jute  grown  upon  the 
sandy  river  bars  for  the  sake 
of  its  coarse,  strong  fiber. 

For  the  production  of  rice, 
and  for  other  crops  as  well, 
irrigation  is  necessary  in 
many  places.  Therefore 
this  country,  favored  with 
large  rivers  fed  by  the  rains, 
suows,  and  melting  glaciers  of 
the  mountains,  has  some  of  the 
Fig.  423.  most  extensive  irrigation  works 

A  tea  plant.  in  tho  world. 


INDIA 


46b 


Forests  and  Wild  Animals.  —  There  are  valuable  forests  on  the  moun- 
tain slopes,  where  the  trees,  including  pines,  firs,  and  junipers,  resemble 
those  of  Europe ;  and  there  are  also  magnolias  and  the  beautiful  deodar,  a 
species  of  cedar.  In  the  hotter  portions  are  valuable  medicinal  plants  and 
spices,  such  as  pepper  and  cinnamon.  The  teak,  with  strong,  durable 
wood,  of  great  value  in  building,  and  the  mango,  the  fruit  of  which  is 
important  as  a  food  between  harvests,  are  both  common.      Besides  these, 


fT^— -■■■■■■"- 

'^  ■ ''  ""^^i 

fell^5^te*€^^- 

'■:■-    11--" '-'-^"   \-  ^SM' 

;^fi^3BPf»« --    '"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^! 

Fig.  424. 
A  native  village  near  Calcutta.    Notice  the  bamboo  on  the  right. 


the  bamboo  and  various  palms  are  of  great  value.  The  bamboo  is  employed 
in  hundreds  of  ways  in  making  implements  and  building  houses  (Fig. 
424) ;  and  the  palms  supply  juices  for  drink,  fiber  for  ropes  and  mats,  and 
cocoanuts  (Fig.  411)  for  food  and  oil. 

In  parts  of  the  Ganges  valley  and  elsewhere  there  are  jungles,  or  tracts 
of  waste  land  densely  covered  with  bamboos,  canes,  etc.,  and  very  difficult 
to  penetrate.  From  these  wastes  the  lion  has  almost  disappeared;  but 
the  elephant  is  still  found,  and  there  are  various  species  of  the  monkey ; 
also  the  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  leopard,  wild  boar,  wolf,  and  Bengal  tiger  (Fig. 
404).  The  tiger  is  much  dreaded,  for  it  not  only  preys  upon  cattle,  but 
even  attacks  men.  Among  the  Himalayas,  goats,  sheep,  and  dogs  still 
exist  in  a  wild  state.  Crocodiles  live  in  the  rivers ;  and  venomous  ser- 
pents are  said  to  kill  as  many  as  twenty  thousand  persons  each  year. 

Mining  and  Manufacturing.  —  In  addition  to  the  raw  products  of 
farms  and  forests  there  are  valuable  minerals,  including  salt,  petro- 


464 


ASIA 


leum,  coal,  and  iron.      India  has  long  been  noted  for  hand-made 
goods  of  great  beauty ;    but  with  the  exception  of  these  there  is 

little  manufacturing.  Of 
late,  however,  there  has  been 
a  marked  development  of 
cotton  manufacturing  by 
machinery. 

Famines  and  Plagues.  — 
Although  these  people  are  so 
extensively  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture, there  are  times  when  they 
do  not  raise  enough  food  for 
their  own  use,  and  then  terrible 
famines  result.     These  occur 


Fig.  425. 
A  tomb  and  mosque  in  India. 


when  rain  fails ;  and  it  may  be  that  one  section  suffers  while  another  has 
an  abundance.  With  the  building  of  railways  the  danger  of  famines 
decreases,  for  then  different 
sections  are  brought  more 
closely  together.  The  first 
railway  was  begun  in  1854,  and 
there  is  now  a  network  across 
the  peninsula  (Fig.  403). 

But  even  the  railways  do 
not  entirely  remove  the 
danger;  and  probably  famines 
will  not  cease  so  long  as  such 
vast  numbers  depend  entirely 
upon  the  products  of  the  soil. 

India  has  also  been  visited 
by  plagues  which  have 
destroyed  tens  of  thousands 
of  lives.  With  a  population 
so  dense,  in  a  climate  so  hot, 
disease  spreads  with  rapidity 
and  with  terrible  effect,  par- 
ticularly among  people  who 
are  not  properly  nourished. 

The  people  have  many 
religious  superstitions.  For 
example,  the  Ganges,  doubtless 
because  of  its  great  value  for 
irrigating  and  fertilizing  the 
soil,  is  considered  a  sacred 
river  (Fig.  429)  ;  and  bathing 
in  its  waters  is   supposed  to 


Fig.  426. 
The  Great  Pagoda  in  India— a  sacred  temple. 


INDIA 


455 


wash  away  disease,  though,  since  the  waters  are  also  used  for  drinking, 
this  custom  is  no  doubt  responsible  for  the  spread  of  much  disease.  The 
conscientious  Hindu  makes  at  least  one  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  river  as  a 
means  of  gaining  divine  favor  and  forgiveness. 

Grovernment.  —  Over  three  hundred  years  ago  a  company  of  Lon- 
don merchants  obtained  a  foothold  in  India  for  trading  purposes. 
The  peninsula  was  then  divided  among  many  native  rulers,  and  at 


Fig.  427. 
Elephants  at  work  in  a  lumber  yard  in  Burma. 

various  times  the  British  government  was  called  upon  to  settle  dis- 
putes between  them.  Partly  in  this  way,  and  partly  through  the 
occasion  of  intervening  for  the  protection  of  British  subjects  engaged 
in  the  Indian  trade,  Great  Britain  gradually  gained  control  of  the  pen- 
insula. India  was  formally  transferred  to  Great  Britain  in  1858,  and 
in  1877  the  Indian  Empire  was  established  as  a  part  of  the  British  Em- 
pire.    The  king  of  the  British  Isles  is  also  styled  Emperor  of  India. 

By  their  protection  and  direction,  the  British  are  able  to  maintain 
their  hold  upon  this  vast  country,  the  population  of  which  is  more  than 
seven  times  that  of  the  British  Isles.  Throughout  India  there  is  an 
average  of  but  one  British  resident  to  every  three  thousand  natives,  and 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  government  officers  are  Hindus.     One  of  the 


456 


ASIA 


members  of  the  British  ministry  is  Secretary  of  State  for  India ;  and,  as 
in  the  case  of  Canada,  a  governor-general,  called  the  Viceroy,  is  sent  from 
Great  Britain  as  chief  executive  officer.  The  British  have  not  attempted 
to  overturn  the  numerous  native  states ;  nor  have  they  interfered  seriously 
with  the  firmly  established  customs  of  the  people. 

Baluchistan  and  Burma.  —  The  Indian  Empire  is  not  confined  to  the 
Indian  peninsula.  It  includes  also  the  desert  country  of  Baluchistan  to 
the  west,  and  fertile  Burma  to  the  east.  In  the  latter  country  there  are 
great  numbers  of  Mongolians.  Yast  quantities  of  rice  are  raised,  and  there 
are  other  valuable  products,  as  rubies,  sapphires,  and  tropical  woods.  In 
Burma  the  elephant  is  used  for  moving  logs  (Fig.  427),  drawing  plows, 
and  carrying  passengers.  Rangoon,  the  seaport,  is  noted  for  its  export 
of  rice ;  but  Mandalay,  farther  up  the  Irawadi  River,  is  the  largest  city 
in  Burma. 

Base  of  Himalayas.  —  Between  Burma  and  the  peninsula  of  India,  at 
the  base  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  is  the  region  which  has  the  heaviest 
rainfall  in  the  world  (p.  260).  Much  tea  is  raised  on  the  hills  of  that  sec- 
tion (Figs.  423  and  428)  ;  for  tea  requires  a  hot  climate,  an  abundance  of 


M^.^t^i^ 


mm 


i^P. 


Fig.  428. 
Picking  tea  in  Indiac 


INDIA 


457 


rain,  and  sufficient  slope  to  prevent  the  water  from  standing  about  the 
roots  of  the  plant. 

The  tea  plant,  which  is  three  or  four  feet  high,  has  bright  green  leaves 
resembling  those  of  a  rose  bush.  The  leaves  are  picked  several  times  a 
year,  often  by  boys  and  girls.  After  they  are  picked  they  are  dried  in  the 
sun  and  later  in  buildings,  in  order  to  remove  all  moisture  before  packing. 

Just  north  of  this  tea  district,  among  the  Himalayas,  are  Nepal  and 
Bhutan,  which,  though  small,  retain  their  independence  because  they  are 
so  protected  by  the  mountains. 

Principal  Cities.  —  So  many  Hindus  are  engaged  in  farming  that 
only  about  five  per  cent  of  them  dwell  in  large  towns.    Nevertheless, 


Fig.  429. 
Temples  along  the  Ganges  at  Benares. 

there  are  seventy-five  cities  with  a  population  of  over  fifty  thou- 
sand; the  two  largest  are  Calcutta,  with  a  population  of  one  million, 
and  Bombay,  with  a  population  of  three  quarters  of  a  million. 

Calcutta,  the  largest  city,  is  a  seaport  on  the  Ganges  delta  and 
the  natural  outlet  of  the  fertile  Ganges  valley ;  but  it  has  a  poor 
harbor  on  a  river  that  varies  in  volume.  It  has  some  manufactur- 
ing,—  being  near  coal  fields,  —  but  it  is  chiefly  important  as  a 
commercial  center  and  as  the  residence  of  the  Viceroy. 


458  .  ABIA 

Farther  up  the  Ganges  are  the  smaller  cities,  Lucknow  and  Benares. 
The  latter,  the  "  holy  city  of  the  Hindus,"  is  on  that  part  of  the  Ganges 
which  is  deemed  most  holy.  At  this  point  temples  (Fig.  429)  line  the 
banks  of  the  river  for  miles,  and  a  steady  stream  of  pilgrims  pours  in  and 
out  of  the  city. 

While  there  are  several  cities  on  the  Ganges,  there  are  none  on  the 
Indus  large  enough  to  find  a  place  on  our  map.  This  is  not  because  the 
Indus  is  useless  for  irrigation,  but  because  of  shallow  waters  and  sand 
bars  which  interfere  with  navigation.  These  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
river,  though  well  supplied  with  water  from  the  mountains,  loses  much  of 
it  by  evaporation  in  crossing  the  arid  plains.  Thus  it  is  obliged  to  deposit 
some  of  its  sediment  as  sand  bars  in  its  channel. 

Bombay,  next  in  size  to  Calcutta  and  the  nearest  port  to  Eng- 
land, is  a  great  business  center.  It  is,  moreover,  the  only  Indian 
city  with  a  really  good  harbor.  Madras,  the  third  largest  city,  is 
situated  at  a  point  where  there  is  only  an  open  roadstead  protected 
by  a  breakwater. 

Ceylon.  —  With  a  fertile  soil,  abundant  rainfall,  and  high  though 
equable  temperature,  Ceylon  is  a  beautiful  tropical  garden,  and  was 
considered  by  the  Arabs  to  be  the  Garden  of  Eden.  Among  the  prod- 
ucts of  Ceylon  are  cocoanuts,  rice,  fruit,  coffee,  and  tea.  The  island  is 
the  third  most  important  tea-producing  section  in  the  world.  Other 
products  are  sapphires  and  rubies  from  the  stream  gravels,  and  beauti- 
ful pearls  and  mother  of  pearl  obtained  from  shellfish  which  live  among 
the  coral  reefs. 

Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Peninsula.  —  This  peninsula  consists 
of  a  series  of  mountain  chains,  spreading  fan-shaped  southward,  with 
numerous  long,  narrow  valleys  between,  which  broaden  toward  the 
south  and  terminate  in  fertile,  populous  delta  plains  at  the  river 
mouths.  In  addition  to  Burma,  a  part  of  the  Indian  Empire,  there 
are  three  divisions  of  this  peninsula :  (1)  Siam^  (2)  French  Indo- 
China^  and  (3)  the  British  Straits  Settlements. 

Siam. — In  this  tropical  country  most  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
either  Chinese  or  Malays,  live  along  the  rivers  and  irrigation  canals, 
where  they  are  largely  engaged  in  the  production  of  rice.  Millet, 
which  is  raised  in  the  drier  places,  competes  with  rice  in  importance 
as  a  food.  Among  the  mineral  products  are  rubies,  sapphires,  gold, 
and  tin.  The  forests  yield  tropical  woods,  especially  teak  wood,  for 
use  at  home  and  for  export. 

Siam  is  a  monarchy,  the  king  being  assisted  by  a  council  of  ministers 
and  a  legislative  body  of  noblemen.     The  poorer  classes  are  still  kept  in  a 


mBO-CHINA 


459 


kind  of  serfdom  by  the  local  governors ;  that  is,  they  may  be  compelled  to 
labor  for  the  governors  for.  two  or  three  months  each  year. 

Bangkok,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of 
a  muddy  river,  up  which  vessels  of  small  draught  are  able  to  pass  to 
the  city.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  live  either  in  poor  houses  on  narrow 
ill-kept  streets,  or  else  in  boats  and  floating  houses  on  the  river ;  but  the 
king  has  magnificent  palaces  decorated  with  carved  marble  and  frescoed 
with  gold.     Buddhism  is  the  religion  of   the  country;   and  in  Bangkok 


Fig.  430. 
A  Buddhist  temple  at  Bangkok. 


alone  there  are  said  to  be  ten  thousand  Buddhist  priests  whose  temples 
(Fig.  430),  decorated  with  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  are  wonderfully 
gorgeous.  Next  to  the  king  the  white  elephant  is  held  in  highest  rev- 
erence, and  Siam  is  often  called  "the  Land  of  the  White  Elephant." 

French  Indo-China.  —  This  dependency  of  France  resembles  Siam  in 
climate,  people,  and  productions.  Silk,  cotton,  tea,  and  spices  are  other 
products,  and  there  are  also  extensive  coal  beds.     Some  coal  is  exported. 

Straits  Settlements.  —  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  British  possessions 
on  the  southern  end  of  the  Malay  peninsula.  In  that  hot,  damp  country, 
so  near  the  equator,  such  tropical  products  as  rice,  cocoanuts,  guttarpercha, 
and  spices  are  obtained.  Extensive  deposits  of  tin  are  found  in  this  region, 
which  supplies  about  half  the  tin  used  in  the  world.    The  mining  is  donQ 


460 


ABIA 


crudely  by  Chinese,  while  the  native  Malays  are  mainly  engaged  in  farming 
and  fishing.     The  only  city  of  importance  is  Singapore. 

Chinese  Empire.  —  Area  and  Population.  —  This  empire,  which  is 
nearly  as  large  as  Siberia,  has  more  inhabitants  than  any  other  nation 
in  the  world.  It  includes  nearly  half  the  population  of  Asia ;  that  is, 
about  the  same  number  as  are  found  in  North  America,  South  America, 
Africa,  Australia,  the  British  Isles,  and  Germany  together.  Or, 
otherwise  expressed,  it  has  fully  twenty-five  million  more  people  than 
live  in  all  of  Europe.  The  hordes  of  Chinese  who  live  on  the  river 
flood  plains  and  deltas  of  the  south  and  east  make  this  the  most 
densely  settled  large  area  on  the  globe. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  outlying  provinces  of  great  extent,  such  as 
Mongolia,  Turkestan,  and  Tibet,  where  the  population  is  very  sparse. 
This  is  because  of  the  rugged  mountains  and  the  vast  desert  plateaus 
where  the  dryness  is  unfavorable  to  all  industries  save  herding. 

Climate.  —  Most  of  the  densely  settled  part  of  China  has  a  tem- 
perate climate  with  an  abundance  of  rain  during  the  summer  mon- 
soon.    In  the  north,  for  example  near  Peking,  which  is  in  about  the 


Fig.  431. 
A  scene  in  the  arid  mountainous  part  of  China,  where  camels  are  used. 


CHINA 


461 


same  latitude  as  Philadelphia,  the  summers  are  warm  and  the  win- 
ters cold ;  but  farther  south,  as  at  Canton,  just  south  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  the  climate  is  tropical,  and  there  is  rain  throughout  the 
year.  Toward  the  interior  the  climate  grows  steadily  drier,  and, 
with  increasing  elevation,  colder  also. 

The  rains  and  snows  of  the  Chinese  mountains  supply  water  for  a 
number  of  large  rivers.    The  two  most  important  are  the  Hoang-ho 


Fig.  432. 
A  part  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China. 


and  the  Yangtse-kiang  (Fig.  406),  whose  floods  spread  out  over 
the  broad  deltas  and  flood  plains,  thus  depositing  sediment  and 
adding  fertility  to  the  soil.  The  greatest  rise,  which  in  the  Yang- 
tse-kiang reaches   a  height  of   fully  forty  feet,  occurs  during  the 


summer  rains. 


It  is  with  great  difficulty  that  the  Hoang-ho  is  controlled,  and  in  the 
last  twenty-five  hundred  years  its  lower  course  has  changed  eleven  dif- 
ferent times.     In  some  cases  this  has  CQ-used  a  change  of  three  hundreci 


462 


ASIA 


miles  in  the  position  of  the  river  mouth.  A  single  flood  destroyed  a 
million  people.  Because  of  the  repeated  destruction  of  life  and  property, 
the  Hoang-ho  has  been  called  "  China's  Sorrow." 

People  and  Civilization.  —  The  Chinese  Empire  is  inhabited  by 
people  of  varied  origin,  with  different  customs,  religions,  and  lan- 
guages. The  Mongolians,  who  form  the  basis  of  the  population, 
apparently  came  from  western  Asia,  bringing  with  them  the  knowl- 
edge of  irrigation.     Although  China  is  partially  protected  on  the 


Fig.  433. 
A  scene  in  a  public  court  of  Shanghai. 


west  by  mountain  ranges  and  desert,  the  constant  danger  of  invasion 
by  nomads  led,  as  early  as  212  B.C.,  to  the  construction  of  the  Great 
Wall  (Fig.  432)  along  the  northern  frontier. 

This  wall,  twelve  hundred  miles  long  in  a  straight  line,  and  fifteen 
hundred  miles  with  all  of  its  windings,  passes  up  and  down  hill  (Fig.  432) 
and  even  over  a  mountain  peak.  It  is  twenty-five  feet  wide  and  thirty 
feet  high,  and  at  short  distances  apart  are  strong  watch-towers  rising  still 
higher.  This  wonderful  structure,  which  required  armies  of  men  to  build, 
"Vyas  so  well  made  that  it  is  still  perfect  in  many  places. 


CHINA 


463 


Long  before  Europeans  had  emerged  from  the  state  of  barbarism,  the 
Chinese  had  developed  a  remarkable  civilization.  The  art  of  printing, 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  the  production  of  silk  and  silk  goods,  the 
baking  of  porcelain  or  china  ware,  and  other  important  arts  were  known 
to  them  long  before  Europeans  learned  them. 

But  in  spite  of  their  early  start,  the  Chinese  have  been  outstripped  by 
Europeans  (p.  443).  Their  peculiar  customs  in  part  account  for  their 
failure  to  advance  farther.  They  are  followers  of  Confucius,  and  his 
doctrine  is  everywhere  taught. 

One  of  their  doctrines  is  ancestor  worship,  which  leads  them  to  regard 
new  customs  as  bad.  This  tends  to  check  development,  and  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  they  object  to  adopting  European  and  American  civilization. 
The  strength  of  their  ancestor  worship  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  dis- 
obedience to  parents  is  regarded  in  China  as  one  of  the  worst  of  sins,  for 
which  children  may  be  whipped  to  death.  By  law  the  punishment  for 
striking  a  parent  is  death. 

The  conservatism  of  the  Chinese  is  shown  by  their  objection  to  the 
introduction  of  labor-saving  machinery,  and  it  is  also  shown  by  their 
methods  of  transportation.  Much  of  the  traflB.c  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
canals  (Fig.  434),  of  which  the  largest  is  the  Grand  Canal  (Fig.  403),  built 
more  than  twelve  hundred 
years  ago. 

Many  Chinese  educated 
in  the  United  States  and 
Europe  are  the  leaders  of  a 
"  Keform  Party  "  which,  to- 
gether with  the  educational 
influence  of  the  Christian 
missionaries,  who  have 
worked  midst  great  priva- 
tions and  danger  for  years 
among  the  Chinese,  have 
been  the  means  of  awaken- 
ing China  to  a  realization 
of  her  natural  resources 
and  possibilities. 

This  means  the  opening 
of  her  ports  to  the  commerce  of  the  world,  the  introduction  of  modern 
educational  methods  and  text-books  into  her  schools,  modern  machinery 
and  appliances  for  manufacturing  and  transportation,  and  the  adoption  of 
modern  dress  and  customs. 

This  great  awakening  promises  to  place  China  eventually  among  the 
modern,  progressive  nations  of  the  world. 


Fig.  434. 
A  typical  Chinese  village  and  canal. 


National  Resources,  —  Though  many  Chinese  are  engaged  in  fish- 
ing, both  in  the  rivers  and  the  ocean,  they  are  in  the  main  an  agri- 


464 


ASIA 


cultural  people.  Their  farming  methods  are  very  crude ;  yet  they 
are  so  careful  and  industrious,  and  labor  is  of  so  little  value,  that 
they  till  every  bit  of  land  possible.  For  example,  water  for  irriga- 
tion, instead  of  being  distributed  only  over  moderate  slopes,  as  in 
the  United  States,  is  often  taken  to  the  very  tops  of  hills.  It  is 
first  raised  from  the  river  by  means  of  wheels,  turned  either  by  men 
or  by  buffaloes,  and  then  pumped  upward  from  one  terrace  to  the 
next  until  the  whole  hillside  has  been  watered. 

One  of  the  principal  foods  of  the  Chinese  is  rice;  but  their 
main  exports  are  tea  and  silk.  Tea  is  raised  on  the  damp 
hill  slopes  of  the  south,  where  the  conditions  resemble  those  in 
India  (p.  456).  Fully  forty  thousand  men  and  women  are  employed 
in  carrying  tea  into  FtJCHAU  alone.  They  receive  but  ten  cents  a 
day  for  their  labor.  In  the  warm  south,  great  quantities  of  silk 
are  obtained,  as  in  France,  from  the  cocoon  of  the  silkworm  cater- 
pillar. Some  of  the  caterpillars  feed  on  forest  leaves,  others  are 
carefully  fed  on  the  mulberry  leaf. 

As  in  other  countries  of  southern  Asia,  the  bamboo  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  products.  The  seeds  are  ground  up  for  food,  and  in  spring  the 
tender  roots  and  stalks  are  eaten.  The  roofs  and  walls  of  houses,  as  well  as 
nearly  all  articles  of  furniture,  are  made  of  bamboo  wood.  It  is,  more- 
over, woven  into  mats,  baskets,  and  hats,  while  paper  is  made  from  its 

pulp.  There  is  almost  no  other  kind 
of  manufacturing,  nor  is  there  much 
development  of  the  wonderful  min- 
eral resources.  It  is  said  that  China 
contains  the  largest  coal  fields  in  the 
world,  in  which  both  bituminous  and 
anthracite  coal  occur;  and  there  are 
also  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and 
iron  ore. 

Government. — The  Chinese  gov- 
ernment changed  from  a  monarchy 
into  a  republic  in  1912.  A  revolu- 
tion resulted  in  the  abdication  of 
the  emperor,  Sun  Hong,  a  boy 
seven  years  old,  in  January,  1912; 
and  in  the  election  of  a  president, 
by  an  assembly  composed  of  two 
representatives  from  each  of  the 
eighteen  provinceSo 


Fia.  435. 
A  Chinese  pagoda  or  temple. 


€HINA  465 

The  government  is  modeled  as  closely  as  possible  upon  that  of 
the  United  States,  and  consists  of  a  president,  his  Cabinet,  and  the 
Assembly  mentioned  above.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  to  be  given  to 
the  people  as  soon  as  possible.  The  wearing  of  queues  has  been 
abolished.     The  Julian  Calendar  has  been  adopted. 

Principal  Cities.  —  There  are  many  cities  in  China,  all  densely 
crowded.  The  poorer  classes  live  huddled  together,  while  the 
wealthier  classes  and  officials  dwell  in  comfort  and  luxury.  The 
largest  city  is  Canton,  which  has  about  nine  hundred  thousand 


%^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 

Fig.  43(3. 
The  harbor  of  Hongkong. 

inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  a  densely  populated  delta  and  is  a 
port  of  outlet  for  productive  southern  China,  being  especially  noted 
for  its  silk.  It  is  said  that  three  hundred  thousand  people,  or  one 
third  of  the  inhabitants,  live  in  boats  moored  in  the  river. 

Hongkong  (Fig.  436),  an  island  which  commands  the  approach 
to  Canton,  belongs  to  the  British.  To  Hongkong  many  of  the 
products  of  China  are  sent  for  export  to  Europe  and  America.  It 
is  therefore  a  very  busy  place.  Hankau  and  Wuchang,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  Yangtse-kiang  River,  are  important  river  ports  for 
tea.  As  in  the  case  of  most  Chinese  cities,  the  number  of  inhabit- 
ants is  uncertain,  but  Hankau  is  now  supposed  to  have  a  popula- 
tion of  about  five  hundred  and  thirty  thousand. 

The  treaty  port^  of  Shanghai  is  another  large  city;  but  Tien- 
tsin, the  port  nearest  Peking^  and  the  northern  terminus  of  the 

1  Foreigners  are  not  allowed  to  trade  in  all  Chinese  cities,  and  those  ports  where 
this  privilege  is  allowed  by  treaty  are  called  "Treaty  Ports." 


466  ^SIA 

Grand  Canal,  is  larger,  with  a  population  of  three  quarters  of  a 
million.  It  was  from  this  point  that  the  allied  forces  started,  in 
1900,  to  relieve  the  foreigners  who  were  besieged  in  Peking  by  the 
Chinese  Boxers. 

Peking,  the  capital  of  China,  is  situated  on  a  broad,  sandy  plain. 
It  has  been  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  for  three  thousand  years  and  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  for  over  eight  centuries.  This  city,  like  others 
in  China,  is  surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  with  gates  that  are  closed  at 
night,  as  of  old  in  Europe.  It  is  a  rectangular  city,  with  one  portion 
reserved  for  the  gardens  and  palaces  of  the  imperial  government. 
This  part  is  known  as  the  "  Forbidden  City,"  because  the  Chinese 
government  refused  to  permit  foreigners  to  enter  it. 

Korea.  —  This  mountainous  peninsula  has  a  temperate  climate  and  is 
adapted  to  the  production  of  such  crops  as  grains  in  the  north,  and  rice, 
tobacco,  and  cotton  in  the  soutji.  In  many  respects  the  inhabitants 
resemble  the  Chinese ;  in  fact,  Korea  was  a  dependency  of  China  until 
freed  by  the  war  between  China  and  Japan  in  1894.  While  there  are 
great  natural  resources,  including  both  coal  and  iron,  there  was  little 
real  development,  and  the  opening  of  the  country  to  foreign  influence 
was  very  slow  until  the  close  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  Japan 
in  1905.  Since  that  time  Korea  has  made  much  progress  under  the 
tutelage  of  Japan. 

Japan.  —  This  island  empire  extends  from  Formosa,  captured 
from  the  Chinese  in  1894,  to  the  Kurile  Islands  far  to  the  north.  It 
also  includes  the  southern  half  of  the  island  of  Saghalien  ceded  by 
Russia  to  Japan  at  the  close  of  the  great  war  of  1904-05.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  islands  with  reference  to  the  mainland  reminds  us  of  the 
British  Isles;  and,  in  fact,  Japan's  isolation  from  other  countries 
has  secured  to  her  the  same  freedom  from  invasion  as  has  long 
proved  of  such  advantage  to  the  British. 

Physiography  and  Climate.  —  Notwithstanding  the  great  length 
of  the  empire,  its  narrow  islands  occupy  an  area  but  little  greater 
than  that  of  California.  .  So  much  of  this  is  mountainous  that  not 
more  than  one  sixth  of  the  surface  can  be  cultivated,  and  many  of 
the  lowlands  are  difficult  to  reach  because  of  the  rugged  surface  and 
the  absence  of  navigable  rivers.  There  are  numerous  volcanoes 
(Fig.  405) ;  and,  since  the  mountains  are  still  growing  (p.  439), 
there  are  many  earthquakes.  These  are  so  frequent  and  violent 
that  in  building  houses  the  people  must  allow  for  their  force. 

Nipon,  the  main  island  of  Japan,  has  a  warm,  temperate  climate 


JAPAN 


467 


and  an  abundance  of  rain.  Other  islands  near  by  have  a  similar 
climate,  but  Formosa  is  partly  within  the  tropics.  Estimate  its  dis- 
tance from  Manila. 

Under  these  conditions,  in  several  respects  so  unfavorable,  a 
dense  population  has  developed,  equal  to  more  than  half  the  number 
in  the  United  States.  In  many  ways  tlie  Japanese  are  the  most 
advanced  people  in  Asia. 

People  and  Government.  —  In  early  times  Japan  was  invaded  by 
Mongolians   from  the  mainland,  who  expelled   the  original   inhab- 
itants to  the  more  barren  northern  islands.      From  these  Mongo- 
lians are  descended 
the   present   Japanese 
(see   Figs.   274   and 
412),  a  people   noted 
for  their  smallness   of 
stature    and    their 
wonderful  artistic  in- 
stinct. 

Centuries  before 
the  time  of  Christ 
they  had  developed  a 
civilization  resembling 
that  of  their  kinsmen, 
the  Chinese.  Their 
fine  taste  led  to  the 
manufacture  of  many 
beautiful  articles  of 
silk,  metal,  glass,  and 
wood.  Like  the  Chinese,  they  for  a  long  time  did  not  care  for 
modern  civilization,  and  closed  their  ports  to  the  outside  world. 
In  1853,  however,  United  States  warships  under  Commodore  Perry 
entered  Yokohama  and  induced  the  Japanese  to  open  their  ports  to 
our  commerce.  After  this  important  step  the  country,  in  1868,  was 
freely  opened  to  the  world. 

One  great  drawback  to  the  advance  of  Japan  was  the  nature  of 
the  government,  which  resembled  that  of  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  While  the  Mikado  was  nominally  emperor,  the  real  power 
was  in  the  hands  of  noblemen  who,  by  the  feudal  system,  had  large 
numbers  of  peasants,  not  only  to  work  for  them,  but  to  fight  when 
necessary.     After  the  country  was  opened  to  foreigners  the  power 


Fig.  4o7. 
A  Japanese  peasant  family  traveling. 


468 


ASIA 


of  the  noblemen  was  lessened,  and  the  Mikado  became  the  real 
emperor.  At  present  he  is  aided  by  two  legislative  bodies,  one 
consisting  mainly  of  noblemen,  the  other  elected  by  qualified  voters. 

There  is  also  a  Cabinet  ap- 
pointed by  the  Mikado,  as 
the  cabinet  of  the  United 
States  is  appointed  by  the 
President. 

Recent  Advance.  —  Since 
these  changes  the  Japanese 
have  become  noted  for  their 
willingness  to  learn  the 
lessons  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion, and  their  progress  has 
been  truly  marvelous.  New 
schools  have  been  started, 
and  education  has  been 
made  compulsory.  Ameri- 
cans and  Europeans  have 
been  induced  to  go  to  Japan 
to  teach,  and  Japanese  students  have  been  sent  to  Europe  and  America  to 
study  in  the  universities  and  to  learn  what  they  could  of  Western  civili- 


FiG.  438. 
A  Japanese  traveling  chair. 


Fig.  439. 
A.  temple  in  Japan. 


JAPAN 


469 


zation.  Thus,  in  a  generation  the  Japanese  have  added  to  their  own 
knowledge  that  of  Europe  and  America;  and  they  have  learned  their 
lessons  so  well  that,  with  their  patience,  skill,  and  intelligence,  they  alone 
of  all  the  nations  in  Asia  have  taken  rank  with  the  great  nations  of 
the  world. 

Over  seven  hundred  newspapers  and  periodicals  are  now  published  in 
Japan.  While  in  1872  there  was  only  one  short  railway  from  Yokohama 
to  Tokio,  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles,  there  are  now  more  than  three 
thousand  miles  of  railway  in  the  empire.  There  are  many  large  manufac- 
tories of  various  kinds ;  and,  as  in  the  British  Isles,  cotton  and  other 
raw  products  are  imported  for  manufacture.  There  is  a  curious  mixture 
of  modern  and  ancient  customs  here  (see  Figs.  437-440). 


Resources.  —  Among  the  mountains  there  are  valuable  deposits 
of  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  coal ;  and  these  are  now  well  devel- 
oped. The  mountain  sides  are  covered  with  forests  of  great  value, 
including  giant  cedars,  camphor  laurels,  and  lacquer  trees ;  and 
wherever  the  soil  is  favorable  there  is  agriculture.  Among  the  soil 
products  are  wheat,  sugar  cane,  and  rice,  the  latter  being  an  impor- 
tant article  of  food.  As  in  China,  both  tea  and  silk  are  produced, 
and  these  form  two  of  the  main  articles  of  export.  Much  of  our  tea 
comes  from  Japan.  Besides  these  industries,  fully  two  and  a  half 
millions  of  people  are  engaged  in  fishing. 

Principal  Cities.  —  ToKio,  a  city  larger  than  Philadelphia,  is  the 
capital  of  Japan.  Besides  being  the  home  of  the  Mikado,  and  there- 
fore having  many  government  buildings,  it  has  numerous  manu- 
factories. Yokohama,  at  the  entrance  to  Tokio  Bay,  was  a  mere 
fishing  village  when  visited  by  Perry;    but  since  the  harbor  of  Tokio 

is  unsuited  for 

the  large  modern 
ships,  Yokohama 
has  grown  rapidly 
and  now  has  the 
largest  foreign 
trade  in  Japan. 

Other  impor- 
tant cities,  having 
a  population  of 
several  hundred 
thousand,  are  Osa- 
ka, noted  for  its  Fig.  440. 
cotton    manuiao-                           Jinrikishas,  or  "man-power  carriages." 


470  ASIA 

turing;  Kioto,  the  former  capital,  and  the  center  of  the  tea  district;  and 
Nagota,  a  center  for  porcelain  manufacturing,  for  which  Japan  has  long 
been  noted.  All  these  are  connected  by  railway  lines,  which  have  been  a 
great  aid  in  the  development  of  their  industries.     State  how. 


Fig.  441. 

Asiatic  buffalo,  used  as  a  work  animal  in  southern  and  western  Asia,  eastern  Europe,  and 

northeastern  Africa. 

Review  Questions —  (1)  Tell  about  the  size  of  Asia;  also  its  position  with 
reference  to  the  zones  and  other  continents.  (2)  Tell  about  its  physiography. 
(3)  Describe  the  climate.  (4)  Tell  about  the  plants  and  animals,  showing  the 
contrast  between  northern  and  southern  Asia.  (5)  What  about  the  use  made  of 
animals  ?  (6)  In  what  sections  were  the  beginnings  of  civilization  probably  made  ? 
Why  there?  (7)  Give  reasons  why  Europeans  have  so  outstripped  the  Asiatics. 
(8)  Tell  about  the  population  of  Asia  and  its  distribution.  (9)  Why  is  Turkey  in 
Asia  of  special  interest  to  us  ?     (10)  Describe  its  surface,  climate,  and  industries. 

(11)  Why,  and  from  what  peoples,  has  Asia  Minor  suffered  frequent  invasions? 

(12)  Tell  about  the  Holy  Land:  its  surface;  climate;  history;  present  condi- 
tion. (13)  Tell  about  Mesopotamia.  (14)  Describe  the  surface  and  climate  of 
Arabia.  (15)  Tell  about  its  government,  products,  and  principal  cities.  (16)  Give 
the  main  facts  about  Persia.  (17)  Do  the  same  for  Afghanistan.  (18)  Com- 
pare the  area  of  Siberia  with  that  of  various  countries  of  the  world.  (19)  What 
about  the  resources  and  future  of  Siberia?  (20)  Tell  about  India  :  its  climate  and 
surface ;  population  ;  agricultural  products ;  forests  and  jungles ;  animals  and  plants ; 
minerals;  manufactures;  famines  and  plagues.  (21)  How  did  the  British  gain 
control  over  India,  and  how  is  the  control  exercised  ?  (22)  Tell  about  Baluchistan 
and  Burma.  (23)  For  what  are  the  countries  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas  impor- 
tant ?  (24)  Locate  and  tell  about  the  principal  cities  of  India.  (25)  What  can 
you  tell  about  Ceylon  ?    (26)  Give  the  principal  facts  about  Siam.     (27)  Do  the 


BUGUESTIONS  471 

same  for  French  Indo-China ;  for  Straits  Settlements.  (28)  Tell  about  China : 
area ;  number  of  inhabitants  and  their  distribution ;  climate  and  rivers ;  people 
and  their  early  civilization ;  reasons  for  their  lack  of  development ;  recent  awaken- 
ing ;  agricultural  products ;  minerals  and  manufactures ;  government ;  prin- 
cipal cities.  (29)  What  can  you  tell  about  Korea  ?  (30)  Tell  about  Japan  :  posi- 
tion ;  area  ;  physiography  and  climate ;  population ;  people  and  government ;  recent 
advance  ;  resources  ;  chief  cities. 

Review  and  Comparison  with  North  America. ^ —  (1)  How  do  North  Amer- 
ica and  Asia  differ  in  form,  coast  line,  islands,  mountains,  direction  of  rivers,  and 
deserts  ?  (2)  What  other  differences  between  the  two  continents  can  you  mention  ? 
What  resemblances  ?  (3)  Is  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway  north  or  south  of  the 
Siberian  railway  ?  Which  is  the  longer  ?  (4)  Is  San  Francisco  north  or  south  of 
Peking  ?  (5)  Name  the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Asia ;  of  southern  Europe. 
Which  of  the  six  is  nearest  the  latitude  of  Florida  ?  (6)  Name  the  large  rivers  of 
Asia  and  of  Canada  that  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  On  a  globe  estimate  the 
shortest  distance  between  the  mouths  of  the  Mackenzie  and  Lena  rivers.  (7)  How 
do  the  great  rivers  of  China  compare  in  length  with  the  Mississippi?  With  the 
Volga  ?  (8)  How  do  the  interior  lakes  and  seas  of  Asia  compare  in  value  for  com- 
merce with  our  Great  Lakes  ?  (9)  With  what  lake  in  North  America  may  the 
Aral  Sea  be  compared  ?  (10)  What  ocean  currents  affect  the  climate  of  Asia  ?  Of 
North  America  ?  (11)  Compare  the  climatic  belts  of  Siberia  with  those  of  Canada. 
(12)  Is  western  Asia  more  or  less  suited  to  agriculture  and  commerce  than  western 
North  America?  Why?  (13)  In  what  portion  of  North  America  and  Asia  is 
rice  cultivated  ?  (14)  Answer  the  same  question  for  cotton.  (15)  W"h at  impor- 
tant crops  in  Asia  are  not  extensively  produced  in  the  United  States?  (16)  Name 
some  of  the  leading  imports  from  Asia  to  the  United  States.  (17)  What  about 
mining  in  Asia  compared  with  that  in  the  United  States?  (18)  Make  the  same 
comparison  for  manufacturing;  for  railways.  (19)  What  is  the  prevailing  kind 
of  government  in  each  of  the  two  continents?  (20)  Compare  the  population  of 
the  five  largest  cities  of  Asia  with  the  five  largest  in  North  America.  (21)  What 
are  the  advantages  to  the  United  States  of  its  control  of  the  Philippines  ?  The 
disadvantages  ? 

Suggestions.  —  (1)  What  do  you  know  about  recent  massacres  of  Armenian 
Christians  by  the  Turks?  (2)  Why,  do  you  suppose,  has  Turkey  not  laid  claim  to 
all  of  Arabia  ?  (3)  Estimate  the  area  of  the  Holy  Land.  (4)  Make  a  sand  or 
clay  map  of  the  Holy  Land  (Fig.  416).  (5)  Point  out  on  the  map  (Fig.  416) 
some  of  the  places  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  and  describe  some  of  the 
events  that  occurred  there.  (6)  What  Bible  events  have  their  scene  in  Mesopo- 
tamia ?  (7)  Write  a  paper  to  show  to  what  extent  our  present  civilization  is 
indebted  to  the  Holy  Land.  (8)  Find  out  some  facts  about  the  Crusades. 
(9)  Find  out  the  length  of  the  railway  across  Siberia.  (10)  About  how  far  is  it 
by  rail  from  Lisbon  in  Portugal  to  Port  Arthur  on  the  Pacific?  (11)  Read  Kip- 
ling's Jungle  Books.  (12)  Why  should  the  Great  Wall  of  China  have  less  value 
now  than  formerly  ?  (13)  How  is  Peking  poorly  situated  for  the  capital  of  so  vast 
an  empire?  (14)  Find  out  about  our  laws  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Chinese,  and 
the  reasons  why  tliey  were  passed.  (15)  Describe  some  of  the  events  connected 
with  the  siege  of  the  legations  and  the  relief  expeditions  sent  to  Peking  in  1900. 

For  References,  see  Teacher's  Book. 

lAid  in  answering  some  of  these  questions  may  be  obtained  in  section  beginning  on 
p.  219,  and  the  Appendix, 


11.    AFRICA 

Physiography.  —  Africa,  the  second  continent  in  size,  resembles 
South  America  in  outline.  Its  form  is  roughly  that  of  a  triangle, 
broad  at  the  north  and  tapering  toward  the  south.  The  coast  line  is 
remarkably  regular,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  coast  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America,  and  resembling  that  of  South  America 
and  Australia.  What  must  be  some  of  the  consequences  of  such 
regularity  ?  What  gulfs,  seas,  and  large  islands  are  found  on  the 
map  of  Africa. 

Africa  differs  from  all  other  continents  in  its  mountain  systems. 
It  is  mainly  a  plateau,  but  near  the  coast  the  plateau  edges  are 
broken  and  the  rocks  upturned,  so  that  there  is  an  almost  complete 
mountain  rim.  Trace  this  rim  (Fig.  444)  ;  from  what  part  of  the 
coast  is  it  absent  ?  In  northern  Africa  the  Atlas  ranges  reach  an 
elevation  of  fourteen  thousand  feet  ;  but  the  loftiest  mountains  are 
in  the  east  central  part.  Among  the  latter  is  the  volcanic  cone 
of  Kilimanjaro,  the  highest  peak  on  the  continent.  Find  this  peak 
and  trace  the  mountains  from  there  northward.  Notice  the  elevated 
land  in  Abyssinia. 

Owing  to  the  mountain  rim  the  rivers  of  Africa  are  peculiar.  For 
instance,  the  Niger,  after  rising  among  the  highlands  near  the  west  coast, 
sweeps  around  in  a  great  curve  before  entering  the  Atlantic.  The  Zam- 
bezi, in  the  south,  also  rises  near  the  west  coast,  but  crosses  the  continent 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambezi  Eiver 
(Figs.  BB  and  CO,  p.  473)  rival  even  the  Niagara  Falls  in  grandeur.  The 
falls  are  more  than  a  mile  wide,  but  are  divided  by  islands  into  three 
sections,  one  about  100  feet  wide,  and  the  other  two  about  a  half  mile 
each.  The  whole  enormous  volume  of  water  falls  four  hundred  feet  into 
a  chasm  shut  in  by  perpendicular  walls  of  basalt.  Great  clouds  of  vapor 
(Fig.  EE,  p.  496)  rise  800  feet  above  the  brink  of  the  falls,  and  many  rain- 
bows appear  in  the  mist.  Although  both  wider  and  higher  than  Niagara, 
the  volume  of  water  is  less.     How  high  are  the  Niagara  Falls  ? 

Trace  the  courses  of  the  Nile  and  the  Kongo,  the  two  largest  rivers. 
In  descending  from  the  plateau  each  of  these  streams  is  interrupted 
by  rapids  and  falls.  Find  the  Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambezi  (Fig.  443) ; 
the  cataracts  of  the  Nile ;  also  Leopoldville  on  the  Kongo,  below  which 

472 


Fig.  BB. 
Victoria  Falls  —  **  Leaping  Waters  "  at  crest  of  falls. 


Photo  by  F.  W.  Sykea. 


Fig.  CC. 

Victoria  Falls  — Part  of  main  falls 

478 


Photo  by  F.  W.  Sykes. 


Fig.  DD. 
A  cluster  of  palms  near  the  Pyramids  in  the  desert  region  of  Egypt. 


474 


r 

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CHIMPANZEE 


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.EOPARD 


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'^AFFF 


ELEPHANT 


l.N  CO.,BUF-FALO. 


.ION 


J 


Fig.  442. 
Some  of  the  African  animals. 


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II 


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O 


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Fig.  444. 


m 


478 


AFRICA 


The  People.  —  Central  and  southern  Africa  is  the  home  of  the  negroes, 
who  are  divided  into  many  tribes  with  different  customs.  Some  are  fierce 
and  warlike ;  others  peaceful ;  those  dwelling  in  the  forest  live  by  hunt- 
ing; those  upon  the  savannas,  by  primitive  agriculture  and  by  herding. 
For  centuries  they  were  captured  by  the  whites  and  sold  in  slavery,  but 
the  day  of  the  white  slave  trade  is  now  almost  past.  In  spite  of  the 
former  frequency  of  slave-hunting  raids,  and  the  great  destruction  of  life 
in  the  fierce  tribal  wars,  there  are  many  negroes  left.     With  a  fertile  soil, 

and  in  a  warm  climate,  they  are  able  to 
support  themselves  with  a  minimum  of 
work,  especially  along  the  rivers  and  on 
the  savannas. 

While  the  forest  and  much  of  the 
savanna  have  been  dominated  by  the  negro 
even  down  to  the  present  day,  the  arid 
sections  of  northern  Africa  have  been  held 
by  the  whites  since  very  early  times.  Near 
the  border  line  between  the  two  races  there 
has  been  such  a  mixture  of  blood  that  the 
population  is  largely  one  of  half-breeds. 

Exploration  and  Settlement.  —  The 
Indies,  famed  for  their  precious  stones, 
spices,  and  other  valuable  products, 
were  reached  by  long  journeys  over- 
land. But  even  before  the  famous 
voyage  of  Columbus,  the  Portuguese — 
the  most  progressive  sailors  of  that 
day  —  were  engaged  in  an  attempt  to  reach  these  distant  lands  by 
sailing  around  the  southern  end  of  Africa.  After  various  voyages, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  finally  passed  and  the  way  to  the  Indies 
by  water  was  opened  in  1498. 


Fig.  447. 
An  African  negro  woman  planting. 


The  Portuguese  made  settlements  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
Africa,  and  they  still  have  extensive  possessions  there  (Fig.  443).  But 
progress  toward  development  and  settlement  has  been  slow  for  various 
reasons,  among  which  perhaps  the  most  important  is  the  fact  that  so 
much  of  Africa  is  tropical.  The  desert  is  forbidding,  and  the  hot,  damp 
climate  of  the  coastal  strip,  upon  which  colonies  were  naturally  first 
established,  was  found  particularly  unhealthful  (p.  476).  In  addition, 
travel  into  the  interior  was  prevented  by  hostile  hordes  of  blacks,  and  by 
the  absence  of  navigable  rivers.  Moreover,  those  who  were  willing  to 
leave  Europe  were  more  attracted  toward  the  continents  of  Australia 
and  America.     Why  should  they  be  ? 


NORTHERN    AFRICA 


479 


By  far  the  most  successful  settlement  in  the  newly  discovered 
parts  of  Africa  was  that  made  by  the  Dutch  at  Cape  Colony,  a  little 
later  than  their  settlement  of  New  York.  As  in  the  case  of  New 
York,  the  British  seized  their  territory. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  Livingstone,  Stanley,  and  others 
entered  the  "  dark  continent "  ;  and  since  their  efforts,  exploration 
has  been  rapid.  Many  European  nations  have  taken  part  in  the 
exploration,  and  as  a  result  have  claimed  territory.  But  the  British 
have  been  by  far  the  most  active.  What  other  nations  have  posses- 
sions there  ?  (Fig.  443.) 

Northern  Africa 

Political  Divisions.  —  Much  of  northern  Africa  is  such  a  desert 
that  its  inhabitants  are  few  and  scattered.  It  is,  however,  under 
the  control  of  various  nations.  The  greater  part  of  the  Sahara  is 
claimed  by  the  French,  though  the  Spanish  hold  a  small  section  on 
the  western  coast,  and  the  British  control  both  the  Libyan  desert 
and  the  Egyptian  Sudan  in  the  east.      Along  the  Mediterranean 


Fig.  448. 
A  pyramid  in  the  desert  near  Cairo  —one  of  the  remarkable  works  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 


coast  are  several  well-settled  sections,  the  best  known  being  Egypt. 
The  four  countries  west  of  Egypt  —  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Mo- 
rocco—  are  often  called  the  Barhary  States  (the  home  of  the  Berbers). 


480  AFRICA 

The  Sahara.  —  From  the  Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  frow  near 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  grass  lands  of  the  Sudan,  there  is  almost 
unbroken  desert  —  the  famous  Sahara.  Its  area  is  estimated  to  be 
from  three  to  four  million  square  miles,  or  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
entire  United  States.  It  is  a  plateau  of  uneven  surface,  with  moun- 
tain ranges  here  and  there,  and  bordered  on  the  north  by  the  Atlas 
Mountains.  The  wind-swept  highlands  are  bare  and  stony,  while 
the  lowlands  have  extensive  areas  of  sand  dunes. 

Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  with  rainfall  would  yield  abun- 
dant crops.  But  nature  has  forbidden  rain,  and  its  surface  is  there- 
fore barren  in  the  extreme.  Only  on  the  oases,  of  which  there  are 
some  four  hundred  in  the  Sahara,  is  there  the  necessary  drinking 
water  which  renders  human  life  possible  in  the  desert. 

Caravans  cross  this  desert,  one  of  the  important  routes  being  from 
Tafilet  in  Morocco,  southward  to  Timbuktu.  There  may  be  from  a  thou- 
sand to  fifteen  hundred  camels  in  one  caravan,  and  a  full  year  may  be 
required  to  equip  it.  Each  camel  is  carefully  selected  by  the  chief  of  the 
caravan,  and  many  extra  camels  are  taken  along  to  replace  those  that  give 
out  on  the  journey.     There  is  one  driver  for  every  dozen  camels. 


Fig.  449. 
A  nomad  camp  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Sahara. 

Upon  starting,  the  loads  are  carefully  packed  on  the  camels'  backs, 
each  animal  bearing  about  three  hundred  pounds.  A  day's  march  lasts 
sixteen  hours,  the  camels  traveling  some  thirty  abreast  at  the  rate  of 
about  two  miles  an  hour.  Ordinary  camels  cannot  travel  more  than  three 
days  without  drinking ;  but  the  better  grades  are  able  to  go  for  six  or  seven 
days  without  water  and  with  almost  no  food.     The  trip  across  the  Sahara, 


EGYPT 


481 


from  north  to  south,  requires  fully  three  months.  Estimate  the  distance. 
At  best  nearly  a  third  of  the  animals  perish  in  the  round  trip ;  and  before 
the  return  journey  is  undertaken  it  is  necessary  for  those  surviving  to 
have  a  rest  of  several  weeks. 

An  advance  party  precedes  the  caravan  to  make  arrangements  for 
camping  and  for  water.  Many  roundabout  journeys  are  necessary  to  pass 
deep  valleys  and  plateaus,  for  caravans  go  around  rather  than  over  obsta- 
cles. The  daytime  is  hot;  but  as  soon  as  the  sun  sets,  the  temperature 
rapidly  falls  and  the  nights  become  cold  even  in  midsummer. 

There  are  dangers  in  the  journey  aside  from  that  of  thirst.  Some- 
times  sand  storms  arise ;  and  although  such  a  storm  may  not  last  a  half- 
hour,  it  may  destroy  a  whole  caravan.  The  wind  blows  violently,  and 
sand  fills  the  air  and  drifts  about  in  such  quantities  that  animals  and  men 
alike  are  suffocated  in  the  drifts.  Also  small  caravans  may  be  attacked 
by  wandering  tribes  of  warlike  natives ;  and  near  the  southern  edge  of  the 
desert  the  danger  from  attack  by  the  lion  is  added.  It  evidently  requires 
courage  and  great  powers  of  endurance  to  engage  in  the  caravan  trade. 

Caravans  which  cross  the  desert  carry  the  products  of  central 
Africa  to  the  coast.  These  include  ivory,  skins,  and  ostrich  feathers 
obtained  by  bartering  with  the  negroes. 

Egypt  and  the  Neighboring  British  Territory.  —  Egypt  proper  and 
the  Libyan  desert  are  parts  of  the  broad  Sahara  and  have  all  the 
features  of  the  desert  just  described.  Even  at  Cairo  the  average 
yearly  rainfall  is  but  an 
inch  and  a  half.  In  cli- 
mate, both  for  summer 
and  winter,  northern 
Egypt  closely  resembles 
the  desert  portion  of 
western  Arizona  and 
southeastern  California. 

The  Nile.  —The  Egyp- 
tian  Sudan  and  the 
country  south  of  it,  on 
the  other  hand,  have  a 
tropical  climate,  arid  in 
the  north,  but  warm  and 
humid  in  the  south,  where 
the  influence  of  the  trop- 
ical rains  is  felt.  The 
headwaters  of   the  Nile,  Fia.  450. 

near  the  equator,  are  fed  Sudanese  people  from  the  Egyptian  Sudan. 


482 


AFmCA 


by  such  heavy  rains  that  the  river  is  able  to  flow  across  the  desert 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  no  tributaries  enter  the  lower  half  of  its 
course.     How  great  a  distance  is  that  ? 

Without  the  Nile  the  whole  of  northern  Egypt  would  be  a  sparsely 


Fig.  451, 

The  lower  Nile.  The  shaded  area  between  the  two  deserts  is  farming  land  which  is  reached 
by  water  from  the  river.  The  numerous  crossed  lines  are  railways.  Find  the  Pyramids. 
Why  is  the  location  at  the  head  of  a  fertile  delta,  and  at  the  outlet  of  a  narrow  river 
valley  bounded  by  desert,  a  favorable  one  for  a  large  city  ? 

inhabited  desert  (Fig.  448)  ;  but  the  precious  river  waters  transform 
the  section  near  the  Mediterranean  (Fig.  451)  into  a  great  oasis  which 
has  become  the  seat  of  an  important  agricultural  industry,  and  is 
densely  populated. 


EGYPT 


483 


After  leaving  the  region  of  equatorial  rains  and  the  savannas,  the  Nile 
crosses  the  desert  through  a  valley  —  in  places  a  thousand  feet  in  depth  — 
which  it  has  cut  in  the  plateau.  In  this  part  of  its  course  there  are  several 
cataracts  (see  Fig.  443).  The  Nile  resembles  the  Colorado  River  of  the 
United  States,  which,  after  leaving  the  Rocky  Mountains,  flows  in  a  deep 
canyon  across  the  arid  plateau  of  Arizona ;  but  the  canyon  of  the  Colorado 
is  much  deeper  than  that  of  the  Nile.  Below  Cairo  the  river  leaves  its 
narrow  valley,  divides  into  several  channels,  and  flows  across  a  plain  (Fig. 
451).     This  plain  is  the  delta  which  the  Nile  has  built  in  the  Mediterranean 


Fig.  452. 
The  Sphinx  and  two  of  the  Pyramids. 

Sea  during  the  ages  that  the  river  has  been  bringing  sediment  from  its 
upper  course.  It  is  the  Nile  that  suggested  the  geographical  term,  delta, 
now  applied  to  similar  deposits  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  various  parts  of 
the  world.  The  word  comes  from  the  Greek  letter  delta  (A),  which  has 
the  form  of  a  triangle.     Notice  that  shape  in  Figure  451. 

When  the  rainy  season  comes  to  the  Nile  tributaries  among  the 
Abyssinian  mountains,  the  river  rises  so  high  that  it  overflows  large 
tracts  of  the  broad  delta  below  Cairo.  The  rise  begins  in  June  and 
reaches  its  height  in  October.  By  this  overflow  not  only  is  the  land 
irrigated,  but  a  thin  layer  of  fine  mud  is  spread  over  the  fields.  This 
serves  so  to  fertilize  the  soil  that,  year  after  year,  heavy  crops  may 
be  raised  without  making  the  soil  sterile. 

S8—A  Q 


484 


AFRICA 


Agriculture,  —  In  consequence  of  these  remarkably  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  Nile  delta  has  been  occupied  by  an  agricultural  people 
from  the  very  earliest  times.  It  is  still  the  seat  of  a  great  grain 
industry,  producing  wheat,  corn,  millet,  and  barley.  Much  rice  and 
sugar  cane  are  also  raised,  and  cotton  which  is  of  especial  value 
because  of  its  long  fiber.  There  are  many  vineyards,  and  orange, 
lemon,  and  fig  groves  ;  and  both  along  the  Nile  and  on  the  oases  of 
the  desert  there  are  groves  of  date  palms  (Fig.  DD,  p.  474). 
Grazing  is  of  importance  in  the  Nile  Valley  and  on  the  neighboring 
plateau.  The  animals  raised  include  the  buffalo  and  camel  in  addi- 
tion to  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  horses,  and  donkeys. 

The  People.  —  The  known  history  of  Egypt  reaches  back  several 
thousand  years  before  the  time  of  Christ.  The  fertile  soil  and  favor- 
able climate,  added  to  the  protection  from  frequent  wars  which  the 
surrounding  desert  and  sea  afforded,  encouraged  the  development  of 
industry  and  thrift.  By  the  mixture  of  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral  races  there  arose  a  civili- 
zation in  advance  of  that  of  the  neighboring 
sections  of  Europe  and  Asia.  In  fact,  at  the 
time  when  Europe  was  inhabited  by  barbarians, 
and  the  peoples  of  western  Asia  were  unor- 
ganized, Egypt  had  made  long  advances  in 
civilization. 


We  read  in  the  Bible  of  the  Pharaohs  who  ruled 
over  Egypt.  Can  you  recall  any  of  the  Bible  stories 
which  relate  to  these  rulers ;  for  example,  the  story 
of  Joseph?  During  those  times  the  Egyptians  built 
the  obelisks  (Fig.  453),  the  sphinx  (Fig.  452),  and 
those  marvelous  structures  the  pyramids  (Fig.  448), 
which  are  really  the  tombs  of  kings.  By  a  peculiar 
process  they  preserved  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  and 
these  mummies  may  be  seen  in  the  museums  of 
many  large  cities.  Among  the  mummies  are  the 
remains  of  the  Pharaohs  themselves. 


Fig.  453. 
An  obelisk  in  Egypt. 


In  the  movement  westward  of  the  people  who  dwelt  along  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  farther  east  in  Asia,  Egypt 
became  one  of  the  highways  of  the  world.  Against  its  people  many 
destructive  wars  were  waged,  and  the  country  has  been  repeatedly 
invaded.  As  other  nations  have  advanced,  the  Egyptians  have 
steadily  lost  ground. 


EGYPT 


485 


At  present  Egypt  is  required  to  pay  annual  tribute  to  Turkey, 
but  she  is  otherwise  practically  independent  of  Turkey  ;  and  the 
ruler,  or  Khedive,  is  an  hereditary  monarch.  The  government  of 
Egypt  was  so  bad  that  the  French  and  British  finally  stepped  in 
and  took  control  of  the  finances  of  the  nation.  When  the  French 
declined  to  aid  in  subduing  a  rebellion  in  Egypt,  the  British  alone 
assumed  a  large  share  in  the  control  of  Egyptian  affairs. 

As  a  result  of  British  direction  there  has  recently  been  marked 
progress  in  Egypt.     Extensive  irrigation  works  have  been  under- 


FlG.  454. 
The  Suez  Canal  at  Port  Said. 

taken,  and  the  land  area  for  cotton  and  sugar  cane  has  thereby  been 
greatly  increased.  By  means  of  reservoirs  and  canals  it  is  further 
proposed  to  reclaim  thousands  of  square  miles  of  the  desert.  Several 
railway  lines  have  also  been  built  (Fig.  451),  including  a  part  of 
the  proposed  line  from  Cairo  to  Cape  Town.  Outside  of  the  Nile 
Valley,  however,  travel  still  depends  largely  upon  the  use  of  camels 
(Fig.  448). 

Suez  Canal.  — Northeastern  Egypt  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
which  connects  Africa  with  Asia.  This  narrow  neck  of  land  has 
for  centuries  stood  as  a  barrier  to  water  travel  from  Europe  to 
southeastern  Asia,  compelling  European  vessels  to  pass  all  the  way 
around  Africa  in  order  to  reach  southern  Asia. 


486 


AFBICA 


The  Suez  Canal,  begun  in  1859,  was  completed  in  1869.  It  extends 
from  Suez  to  Port  Said  (Fig.  443),  and  is  eighty-seven  miles  long,  with 
a  depth  of  twenty-six  feet  and  a  width  at  the  surface  varying  from  sixty-five 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty  yards.  Its  length  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  proposed  Panama  Canal,  but  the  difficulties  of  construction  were 
less.  The  country  is  very  level,  and  a  part  of  the  course  (about  twenty- 
one  miles)  is  through  a  lake.  Ten  vessels  on  an  average  pass  through  the 
Suez  Canal  each  day.  Estimate  the  distance  saved  by  this  canal  in  going 
from  London  to  Calcutta.  By  agreement  among  nations  it  cannot  be  cap- 
tured and  closed  in  time  (3f  war. 

Cities.  —  At  the  head  of  the  delta,  just  above  the  point  where  the 
Nile  branches  (Fig.  451),  is  Cairo,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of 
Egypt  and,  in  fact,  of  all  Africa.  It  is  about  the  size  of  St.  Louis, 
having  a  population  of  570,000.  This  interesting  place  is  visited 
each  year  by  a  stream  of  tourists,  some  seeking  a  winter  health 
resort,  others  attracted  by  the  strange  life  of  the  country  and  the 
remarkable  ruins  of  the  old  civilization  (Figs.  448,  452,  and  453). 


Cairo  itself  contains  the  palace  of  the  Khedive,  several  interesting 
mosques,  and  a  museum  in  which  are  preserved  many  Egyptian  antiqui- 
ties and  works  of  art.  The  inhabitants  also  attract  attention,  for  in  the 
streets  may  be  seen  many  people  with  different  languages  and  peculiar 
customs.     The  differences  among  the  people  may  be  illustrated   by  the 

following  fact :  there  are 
three  Sabbaths  each  week, 
Friday,  the  Sabbath  of  the 
Mohammedans,  Saturday,  ob- 
served by  the  Jews,  and 
Sunday,  by  the  Christians. 


Alexandria,  con- 
nected with  Cairo  by  rail 
(Fig.  451),  is  the  seaport 
of  Egypt  and  the  second 
city  in  size  in  the  country. 
The  chief  business  is  the 
export  of  cotton,  sugar, 
grain,  and  other  Egyptian 
products,  and  the  impor- 
tation of  manufactured 
goods.  More  than  half  the 
trade  is  with  Great  Britain. 


Fig.  455. 
An  Arab  school  in  the  streets  of  Cairo. 


THE    BARB  ART    STATES 


487 


Fig.  456. 
The  costume  of  women  in  Algeria. 


The  Barbary  States.  —  Find  the  position  of  each  of  these  four 
countries.  Each  borders  the  Mediterranean,  but  extends  southward 
into  the  desert  (p.  479)  . 

The  Atlas  Mountains  skirt  the  Mediterranean  coast  from  the  Atlantic 

to  Tunis,  where  their  projection  into  the  Mediterranean  forms  the  most 

northerly   point    in    Africa.      These 

mountains    contain    many    valuable 

mineral  products,  including  precious 

metals  in  Morocco  and  Algeria,  and 

marble   and   alabaster   in  the  latter 

country. 

Since  the  Atlas  Mountains  cause 

vapor  to  be  condensed  when  winds 

blow   from   the   ocean   or   from   the 

Mediterranean,  many  of  the  valleys 

are    well    watered.      Forests    cover 

some  of  the  mountain    slopes,    and 

one  of  the  valuable  trees  is  the  cork 

oak,  the  bark  of  which  is  removed 

for   shipment    from   Algeria   to   Spain   and   Portugal.      Camels,    sheep. 

goats,  and  cattle  are  raised  among  the  mountains  and  upon  the  plateaus. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on 
here  and  there,  often  by 
means  of  irrigation,  with 
water  supplied  by  the 
mountain  snows  and  rains, 
as  in  southern  California. 
The  villages  are  therefore 
situated  where  valleys  open 
to  the  plains.  Among  the 
crops  produced,  besides  dates 
and  grains,  are  figs,  grapes, 
and  olives.  Wine  from  the 
grapes  of  Algeria  is  shipped 
in  large  quantities  to  France; 
and  the  best  olive  oil  and  the 
best  dates  in  the  world  come 
from  Tunis. 

The  original  occupants 
of  this  region,  the  Berbers, 
still  dwell  on  the  desert  and 
among  the  mountains,  hav- 
ing  been   driven  there  loEg 

ago  by  invading  Arabs.      Most  of  the   inhabitants  are   Mohammedans. 

Tripoli  is  still  a  Turkish  province,  but  Tunis  and  Algeria  are  held  by 

France.      However,  the  native  ruler,  or  Bey,  of  Tunis  is  permitted   to 


Fig.  457. 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  in  Algiers. 


488  AFRICA 

direct  affairs  in  his  country  under  the  supervision  of  France.  Mo- 
rocco is  the  only  one  of  the  Barbary  States  that  maintains  independ- 
ence, being  ruled  by  an  absolute  monarch,  or  Sultan.  Can  you  suggest 
why  the  conflicting  interests  of  Spain,  France,  and  England  should  pre- 
vent conquest  by  any  one  ? 

Conditions  of  life  in  Morocco  are  shown  by  the  following:  The  writer 
once  visited  a  school  in  Tangier  consisting  of  a  dozen  boys  from  nine  to 
ten  years  of  age.  The  room  where  they  studied  received  its  only  light 
from  the  open  door,  and  it  contained  no  seats,  desks,  or  furniture  of  any 
kind.  The  children  sat  on  the  floor  in  a  semicircle  around  a  long-bearded 
old  man,  who  likewise  sat  on  the  floor,  and  the  only  object  they  had  before 
them  was  a  page  from  the  Koran,  or  Mohammedan  Bible.  What  does 
such  a  condition  of  education  indicate  in  regard  to  progress?  If  this 
is  the  case  on  the  coast,  almost  within  the  shadow  of  Europe,  what  must 
be  the  condition  farther  inland  ? 

The  capitals  are  the  principal  cities  among  the  Barbary  States. 
Fez,  one  of  the  capitals  of  Morocco,  is  in  the  interior;  but  the 
Sultan  and  his  court  do  not  reside  there  all  the  year.  Name  the 
other  capital.  Tangier,  on  the  coast,  is  better  known.  Why  should 
it  be  ?  In  Algeria,  the  seaport  Algiers  is  the  capital  and  largest 
city.  It  is  an  interesting  place,  combining  many  features  of  ancient 
and  modern  times.  Under  the  French  it  has  become  an  important 
trading  center.  The  same  is  true  of  Tunis,  the  capital  of  the 
country  by  that  name.     Locate  the  capital  of  Tripoli. 

Southern  Africa 

Comparison  with  Northern  Africa.  —  In  some  important  respects 
there  is  a  resemblance  between  northern  and  southern  Africa, 
although  they  lie  in  different  hemispheres.  What  similarities  are 
there  in  climate  (p.  476)  and  physiography  (p.  472)?  There  is  a 
resemblance,  too,  in  the  fact  that  both  sections  have  long  been 
settled  by  white  men.  What  difference  is  there  in  the  length  of 
occupation  by  white  men  ? 

The  People.  —  It  is  to  the  Dutch  that  we  owe  the  first  important 
development  of  South  Africa.  Settling  at  Cape  Town,  and  then 
spreading  over  the  neighboring  region,  they  took  possession  of  the 
country  occupied  by  the  negroes  and  introduced  the  European 
industries  of  farming  and  ranching. 

When  Cape  Colony  came  into  possession  of  the  British  (p.  479), 
many  of  the  Dutch  remained;  but  others  emigrated,  or  "trekked," 
northward   and    found   new   homes   in   the   interior.     There   they 


SOUTHERN  AFRICA 


489 


established  two  republics,  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State, 
in  which  they  desired  to  continue  the  customs  of  their  forefathers 
and  live  in  the  pursuit  of  agriculture  and  herding. 

Doubtless  the  Boers,  as  these  people  are  called,  would  have  been 
left  to  themselves  but  for  the  discovery  of  wonderfully  rich  depos- 


IP 


Fig.  458. 
A  Zulu  woman  making  a  straw  mat. 


its  of  gold.      The  mines  were  developed  by  British  capital,  and 
friction  arose  between  the  mine  owners  and  the  Boers.     War  fol- 
lowed, as  a  result  of  which  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State 
were  declared  British  col- 
onies in  1900. 


At  present,  therefore,  the 
British  control  a  broad  strip 
from  the  southern  tip  of 
Africa  northward  to  the 
southern '  end  of  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika. What  are  the  names 
of  the  British  colonies  in 
South  Africa  (Fig.  443)? 
What  nations  control  the 
land  to  the  east  and  west  of 
the  British  possessions? 
Besides  the  Boers  there  are 
many  British  in  South 
Africa,  especially  in  Cape 
Colony  and  at  the  gold  mines 


Fig.  459. 
A  pineapple  field  in  South  Africa, 


490 


AFBIGA 


of  the  Transvaal.  There  are  also  large  numbers  of  negroes  in  this  region, 
particularly  in  the  tropical  section  and  in  Zululand  in  northern  Natal 
(Pig.  458).  Some  of  them,  like  the  Zulus,  have  fiercely  opposed  the 
encroachment  of  the  whites  and  still  maintain  semi-independent  states. 
They  are,  however,  making  rapid  progress  toward  civilization. 

Agriculture  and  Grazing.  —  Along  the  east  coast,  and  in  some  of 
the  interior  valleys,  agriculture  is  an  important  industry.     Sugar, 


Fig.  460. 
Cattle  in  the  Transvaal. 


bananas,  pineapples  (Fig.  459),  tea,  coffee,  and  ric^  are  raised  near 
the  coast,  where  the  climate  is  warm  and  damp.  But  wheat,  tobacco, 
vegetables,  and  grapes  are  produced  in  the  cooler  south,  and  upon 
the  uplands  wherever  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  or  irrigation  possible. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  South  Africa  is  an  arid  plateau,  and 
its  elevation  causes  cold  winters  in  spite  of  the  latitude.^  Forests 
are  absent,  and  little  wood  is  found  except  that  which  comes  from 
the  thorny  acacia  bushes  of  the  plains,  and  the  willows  and  other 
trees  that  grow  along  the  streams.  Except  in  the  real  desert 
the  grass  springs  into  life  after  the  summer  rains  (November  and 
December),  and  the  country  becomes  green  and  beautiful.  Then 
follows  a  long  drought,  when  the  vegetation  withers.  But,  as  in 
the  arid  part  of  western  United  States,  the  dried  grass  is  a  sort  of 
natural  hay  upon  which  cattle  and  sheep  thrive. 

Upon  this  plateau,  therefore,  immense  numbers  of  cattle,  sheep. 


SOUTHERN  AFRICA 


491 


and  goats  are  raised,  and  also  many  ostriches.  It  is  estimated  that 
in  Cape  Colony  alone  there  are  over  eighteen  million  sheep  and  goats, 
nearly  two  million  cattle,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
ostriches.  In  consequence,  the  production  of  wool,  hides,  meat,  and 
ostrich  feathers  is  of  great  importance.  Of  what  value  are  these 
products  to  Great  Britain  ? 

Mineral  Wealth.  —  The  discovery  of  gold  in  South  Africa  has 
brought  great  changes,  as  among  the  mountains  in  the  arid  section 
of  western  United  States.  This  metal  is  found  scattered  through  a 
conglomerate  rock  in  the  Transvaal,  near  the  city  of  Johannesburg, 
which  on  that  account  has  become  the  largest  city  of  South  Africa. 
This  district  has  become  the  most  important  in  gold  production  in 
the  world;  in  1906  more  gold  was  mined  here  than  in  the  entire 
United  States. 

Other  valuable  minerals,  including  copper,  iron,  and  coal,  also 
occur;  but  as  yet  they  have  been  little  developed.  At  Kimberley" 
in  Cape  Colony,  however,  are  diamond  mines,  which  now  supply 
ninety-eight  per  cent  of  the  world's  diamond  product. 

The  diamonds  occur  as  rough  crystals  in  a  decomposed  volcanic  rock, 
and  are  obtained  by  digging  out  the   soft  rock  and  carefully  removing 


riG.  461. 
Cape  Town,  with  Table  Mountain  (3500  feet  high)  in  the  distance. 


492 


AFBICA 


the  crystals.  After  this  the  crystals  must  be  cut  into  the  proper  shape 
and  polished.  There  are  various  grades,  some  clear  and  beautiful,  others 
impure  and  dull.  So  productive  is  this  deposit  of  precious  stones  that 
$160,000,000  worth  have  been  removed  in  eleven  years.  There  is  only  a 
limited  demand  for  diamonds;  but  the  company  in  control  is  careful  not 
to  mine  enough  of  them  to  reduce  the  price  greatly.  This  is  possible, 
since  the  Kimberley  mine  owners  have  practically  a  monopoly  of  the  dia- 
mond production  of  the  world. 

Commerce  and  Cities.  —  The  two  chief  rivers  of  South  Africa  are 
of  little  use  as  trade  routes.  The  Orange  River  is  not  navigable, 
because  of  lack  of  water  and  the  presence  of  rapids  at  the  edge  of  the 
plateau.     The  other,  the  Zambezi,  is  navigable  by  small  boats  for  a 


m^- 


Fig.  462. 


A  scene  at  the  market  in  Kimberley.    Oxen  are  extensively  used  by  the  Boers  as  draught 

animals. 

distance  of  three  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth;  but  the  climate 
near  the  coast,  especially  on  the  delta,  is  warm  and  unhealthful. 
Rapid  water  checks  further  navigation,  for  at  this  point  are  the 
Victoria  Falls  (Figs.  BB,  CC). 

Nor  is  the  coast  especially  favorable  to  commerce.  For  long 
distances  there  are  no  good  harbors,  while  the  river  mouths  are 
choked  with  sand  bars  which  render  entrance  difficult.  A  break- 
water has  made  Table  Bay  a  good  port,  and  around  its  shores, 
beautifully  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Table  Mountain  (Fig.  461), 
is  Cape  Town,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Cape  Colony.  It  is 
connected  with  the  interior  by  a  railway  line,  the  southern  end  of 
the  proposed  railway  from  Cape  Town  to  Cairo. 


CENTBAL    AFRICA  493 

A  second  important  harbor  is  that  of  Delagoa  Bay,  upon  which  is  situ- 
ated LouRENgo  Marquez,  the  capital  of  Portuguese  East  Africa.  Being 
connected  by  rail  with  the  interior,  this  port  has  been  much  used  for  the 
shipment  of  Transvaal  products.  Durban,  the  seaport  of  Natal,  is  a 
small  city  also  connected  with  the  Transvaal  by  rail.  The  two  principal 
interior  cities  are  Kimberley  and  Johannesburg  (p.  491).  There  is  no 
important  town  in  German  South  Africa,  which  is  for  the  most  part  an 
arid  plateau.     To  what  nation  does  Waljisch  Bay  belong  ? 

Central  Africa 

This  vast  area  is  in  large  part  a  great  unknown.  Much  of  it  is 
tropical  forest  ;  but  on  the  northern  and  southern  sides  are  open 
savannas  (p.  288). 

The  Rivers.  —  Owing  to  the  heavy  rainfall  of  the  forest  belt,  the 
rivers  are  large.  The  Nile  and  Zambezi,  already  described,  and  the 
Niger  and  Kongo,  all  receive  water  from  the  equatorial  rains.  The 
Niger  is  navigable  in  sections  ;  but  there  are  rapids  in  some  parts, 
and  in  its  northern  portion  the  river  dwindles  in  size  because  of  the 
dry  climate. 

It  is  the  immense  Kongo,  which  empties  into  the  sea  a  few 
degrees  south  of  the  equator,  that  offers  the  best  means  of  entrance 
to  Central  Africa.  Although  it  is  interrupted  by  a  series  of  falls  a 
short  distance  from  the  coast,  above  Stanley  Pool  there  are  thousands 
of  miles  of  navigable  waters  in  the  main  river  and  its  tributaries. 

It  was  Stanley  who  first  explored  the  Kongo,  in  1876 ;  and  since  that 
time  this  part  of  Africa  has  been  rapidly  developing.  Formerly  it  was 
necessary  to  carry  goods  around  the  rapids,  each  native  porter  carrying  about 
sixty  pounds.  Only  in  this  way  was  Stanley  able  to  carry  his  boats  to  the 
navigable  portion  farther  up  stream.  Now,  however,  a  railway  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  in  length  connects  the  lower  Kongo  with  Leopoldville  on 
Stanley  Pool  above  the  falls.  Thence,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  steamers 
may  go  a  thousand  miles  up  the  river  and  also  into  many  tributaries. 

The  People.  —  Very  few  Europeans  have  settled  in  Central  Africa,  and 
the  native  blacks  live  almost  as  their  ancestors  did.  Most  of  the  inhab- 
itants live  in  ingeniously  built  huts  clustered  in  villages  (Fig.  464).  They 
have  a  kind  of  tribal  government,  each  tribe  having  a  leader  whose  power 
is  absolute,  and  under  whom  are  minor  chiefs.  Some  of  the  tribes  are  can- 
nibals. In  religion  they  vary  greatly,  though  all  are  intensely  super- 
stitious (p.  278). 

Among  the  blacks  none  are  more  remarkable  than  the  pygmies  whom 
Stanley  discovered  in  the  equatorial  forests,  where  large  numbers  live  in 
an  area  of  about  thirty  thousand  square  miles.  The  adults  are  only  three 
or   four  feet  in  height.     They  live  exclusively  by  hunting,  by  gathering 


494 


AFRICA 


Fig.  463. 
A  steamer  on  the  Kongo. 


the  vegetable  products  of  the  forest,  and  by  theft  from  the  neighboring 
agricultural  tribes.  Their  villages  are  usually  built  in  the  forest  where 
two  paths  cross,  and  the  huts  are  shaped  like  a  turtle's  back,  being  about 
four  and  a  half  feet  high,  ten  feet  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  wide.  In  that 
hot  climate  they  find  little  need  for  clothing. 


Fig.  464. 
A  view  on  the  savanna  of  Africa,  a  negro  village  in  the  foreground. 


CENTRAL   AFBICA 


4d5 


With  a  small  spear,  a  short  bow  with  poisoned  arrows,  and  a  knife, 
they  hunt  with  wonderful  skill,  and  by  means  of  pitfalls  they  capture 
even  the  elephant.  They  know  the  forest  intimately,  and  neither  bird  nor 
beast  can  escape  them.  According  to  Stanley  they  offer  one  of  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  exploration ;  for  they  appear  stealthily,  attack  a  party  with 
great  courage,  and  then  disappear  in  the  trackless  woods. 

Divisions  of  Central  Africa.  —  European  nations  have  been  active 
in  claiming  the  greater  part  of  Central  Africa  ;  but  their  control 
over  the  native  inhabitants  is  merely  nominal,  and  the  boundaries  of 
the  different  sections  are  not  well  defined. 

The  Sudan  includes  the  vast  area  between  the  Sahara  and  the 


Fig.  465. 
Oasis  of  Biskra  in  the  Sahara. 


tropical  forest.  What  can  you  tell  about  its  climate?  (p.  476.) 
More  than  half  of  the  Sudan  is  claimed  by  the  French,  and  most  of 
the  remainder,  including  the  Niger  Territories  and  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  is  held  by  the  British.  The  inhabitants  are  nomadic  in  the 
north,  and  agricultural  in  the  south,  though  they  raise  little  more 
than  is  needed  for  their  own  use.  There  is  some  gold  in  the  west ; 
but  the  principal  products  are  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  and  gums. 

East  of  the  Sudan  is  Abyssinia,  which  is  for  the  most  part  a  rocky 
plateau  crossed  by  mountains  and  difficult  of  access.  Its  condition  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  capital  is  periodically  changed  when  the 
supply  of  firewood  is  exhausted.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  there 
are  no  government  buildings.     The  inhabitants  are  mainly  whites  belong- 


496 


AFRICA 


Photo  by  F.  W.  Sykes. 

Fig.  EE. 
Victoria  Falls  —  Chasm  and  Livingstone  Island. 
Notice  the  vapor  rising,  obstructing  view  of  falls. 

ing  to  very  different  tribes  which  are  often  hostile  to  one  another.  Many 
of  the  people  still  hold  to  Christianity,  notwithstanding  the  invasion  by 
Mohammedans  nearly  four  centuries  ago.  Italy  holds  Eritrea  and  Italian 
Somaliland,  What  other  nations  occupy  a  part  of  the  coast  on  the  border 
of  Abyssinia  ? 


CENTRAL    AFRICA  497 

The  map  shows  several  small  countries  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  in 
the  part  marked  Upper  Guinea.  Find  Lower  Guinea.  The  divisions  col- 
ored pink  belong  to  the  British;  those  marked  green  to  the  Germans. 

One  of  the  divisions  of  Upper  Guinea  is  Liberia,  which  is  of  special 
interest  to  Americans.  It  is  a  negro  republic  established  by  Americans 
as  a  home  for  freed  slaves,  and  its  capital,  Monrovia,  is  named  after 
President  Monroe.  No  white  man  is  permitted  to  become  a  citizen. 
Besides  uncivilized  negroes  in  the  interior,  the  republic  includes  fully 
twenty  thousand  negroes  with  some  knowledge  of  civilization,  all  living 
near  the  coast.  The  coastal  strip  is  damp  and  unhealthful ;  but  behind  it 
is  the  forest-covered  plateau  slope.  The  products  are  chiefly  coffee,  palm 
oil,  and  sugar.  It  was  the  example  set  by  the  British  in  founding  Sierra 
Leone  as  a  home  for  liberated  slaves,  that  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
republic  of  Liberia. 

Kongo  State,  crossed  by  the  equator  and  drained  by  the  Kongo 
and  its  tributaries,  was  founded  by  the  king  of  Belgium,  who  sup- 
ported Stanley  in  his  explorations  of  this  region.  It  is  in  large  part 
a  forest-covered  plateau ;  but  there  are  sections  of  grass  land. 
Hordes  of  savages,  including  the  pygmies,  inhabit  the  forests  and 
savannas  ;  the  buffalo,  elephant,  and  leopard  live  on  the  plains  ; 
and  the  roar  of  the  lion  is  frequently  heard. 

Through  the  building  of  the  railway  around  the  cataract  of  the 
Kongo,  and  by  the  aid  of  steamers  above  and  below  the  falls,  the 
resources  of  this  great  area  are  beginning  to  be  drawn  upon.  From 
it  are  obtained  large  quantities  of  ivory,  rubber,  palm  oil,  gum,  and 
pepper,  as  well  as  tropical  woods. 

East  of  the  Kongo  State  are  British  and  German  territories.  What 
are  they  called  ?  What  is  their  climate  ?  What  products  would  you 
expect  ?  Observe  to  what  extent  the  British  claim  Africa.  What  break 
is  there  in  the  British  territory  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the 
Mediterranean  ?   What  variety  of  climate  does  the  British  territory  include  ? 

Need  of  Railways.  —  One  of  the  great  needs  of  Central  Africa  is 
railways  for  transportation  to  and  from  the  sea.  The  three  large 
lakes,  Nyassa,  Tanganyika,  and  Victoria  Nyanza,  are  of  great  service 
in  the  transportation  of  goods,  and  already  there  are  steamers  upon 
them.  Elsewhere  caravans  of  native  porters  bear  the  products  on 
their  backs,  traveling  along  narrow  paths  through  the  forest. 

As  a  result  of  British  and  German  energy  we  may  expect  that 
railways  will  soon  reach  the  various  parts  of  the  interior  of  Africa, 
in  fact  a  railway  to  Victoria  Nyanza  is  already  well  under  way 
(Fig.  443). 


4M  AFRICA 

Islands  near  Africa 

The  large  island  of  Madagascar,  which  is  larger  than  any  of  our 
States  except  Texas,  is  two  hundred  and  thirty  miles  from  the 
mainland.  There  is  much  highland  in  the  country,  especially  on  the 
eastern  side,  but  the  coastal  region  is  lowland.  The  island  is  con- 
trolled by  the  French,  and  produces  cattle,  hides,  valuable  tropical 
woods,  rubber;  and  coffee.  While  there  are  some  Arabs,  and  tribes 
of  negro  origin  in  the  west,  the  natives  are  for  the  most  part  Malays, 
called  Hovas,  who  came  by  water  from  the  northeast. 

Of  the  many  small  islands  near  the  coast  of  Africa  the  northernmost 
are  the  Madeira  Islands  on  the  west  side.  These,  together  with  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands  farther  southwest,  have  belonged  to  Portugal  since  the  early 
Portuguese  voyages  of  discovery.  The  Spanish  Canary  Islands  lie  between 
these  two  groups.  Find  other  islands  along  the  west  coast  (Fig.  443) 
which  belong  to  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Ascension  Island  and  St.  Helena,  south  of  the  equator,  are,  like  the 
above-named  groups,  volcanic.  They  belong  to  Great  Britain,  and  St. 
Helena  attained  notoriety  as  the  prison  home  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
The  principal  small  islands  on  the  eastern  side  of  Africa  are  Zanzibar 
(British)  near  the  coast,  Reunion  (French)  and  3Tauritius  (British)  east 
of  Madagascar.  Locate  each  of  these  (Fig.  443).  Find  other  French 
and  British  islands.  These  islands  are  of  value  as  naval  stations.  Their 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  fishing  and  in  agriculture,  raising  sugar  cane 
and  other  tropical  products. 

Review  Questions. —  (1)  What  is  the  shape  of  Africa?  (2)  Compare  the 
coast  of  Africa  with  that  of  other  continents.  (3)  Tell  about  the  highlands;  the 
rivers  and  lakes.  (4)  Describe  the  belts  of  climate,  and  compare  thein  with  those 
of  South  America.  (5)  Tell  about  the  plant  and  animal  life.  (6)  Tell  about 
the  people.  (7)  Tell  about  the  exploration  and  settlement.  (8)  What  have 
been  some  of  the  principal  obstacles  to  such  explorations  and  settlements? 
(9)  Name  and  locate  the  Barbary  States.  (10)  What  portions  of  northern  Africa 
are  under  the  control  of  Europeancountries?  (11)  Describe  the  Sahara.  (12)  De- 
scribe the  caravan  trip.  (13)  Tell  about  Egypt:  the  climate;  the  Nile  River; 
agriculture;  people  and  government ;  Suez  Canal;  principal  cities.  (14)  Describe 
the  Barbary  States  :  their  raw  products ;  manufactures ;  commerce  ;  inhabitants  ; 
government.     (15)    State  resemblances  between   northern  and  southern  Africa. 

(16)  Tell   about    South    Africa:  the   people;    agriculture  and  grazing;  n)ining. 

(17)  What  about  the  value  of  the  Orange  and  Zambezi  rivers  for  commerce? 

(18)  Locate  and  tell  about  each  of  the  cities:  (a)  Cape  Town;  (?>)  Louren90 
Marquez ;  (c)  Durban ;  (tZ)  Kimberley ;  {e)  Johannesburg.  (19)  Tell  about 
Central  Africa  :  the  climate  and  rivers ;  the  people  and  their  customs.  (20)  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  divisions  of  Central  Africa.  (21)  Tell  about :  (a)  the  Su- 
dan ;  (h)  Abyssinia;  (c)  Somaliland;  {d)  Liberia;  (e)  Sierra  Leone;  (/)  Kongo 
State.     (22)  What  about  the  need  of  railways  ? 


Fig,  -iOt). 


eome  Australian  animals.  The  platypus  lays  eggs  like  a  bird  or  reptile.  The  kangaroo, 
like  other  marsupials,  carries  its  unprotected  young  in  a  pouch.  Where  else  have  we 
found  large  running  birds  like  the  emu  ? 


Fig.  467. 

Map  Questions.  —  (1)  Judging  from  the  railways  and  cities,  which  is  the  best-settled 

part  of  Australia  ?    (2)  Which  part  is  least  settled  ?    (3)  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for 

these  facts?     (4)  From  the  lakes  and  rivers,  what  do  you  infer  concerning  the  climate  of 

the  interior?     (5)  How  does  Tasmania  compare  in  area  with  Pennsylvania?  (Appendix.) 


"With  your  own  state  ?  (6)  Make  the  same  comparison  for  New  Zealand.  (7)  Make  a  list 
of  the  island  groups  belonging  to  the  United  States;  to  Great  Britain;  Germany;  the 
Netherlands;  France.  (8)  What  nations  claim  parts  of  Borneo?  New  Guinea?  (9)  Find 
the  area  of  Mtcb  9t  Aese  islands  (Appendix)  and  compare  it  with  the  area  of  your  own 
state. 


III.     AUSTRALIA   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 

Australia 

Physiography.  —  Australia  lies  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  world, 
an  island  continent  in  the  water  hemisphere  and.  the  only  continent 
wholly  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Isolated  for  ages,  its  plants 
and  animals  differ  (Fig.  466)  from  those  in  other  parts  of  the  earth. 
With  its  area  of  nearly  three  million  square  miles,  it  approaches  the 
United  States  or  Europe  in  size.  But  it  has  been  settled  by  Euro- 
peans so  recently,  and  so  much  of  its  surface  is  desert  (Fig.  467), 
that  it  is  much  less  densely  populated  than  the  other  continents. 
Much  of  the  interior  is  practically  unexplored,  partly  because  of 
the  desert  and  partly  because  of  the  absence  of  interior  navigable 
waters. 

The  surface,  like  that  of  Ireland,  suggests  a  plate  in  form,  since 
the  low  interior  rises  gradually  to  plateaus  and  mountains  which 
often  descend  steeply  toward  the  sea.  While  there  are  some  low, 
short  ranges  in  the  interior,  the  highest  land  is  in  the  east,  where  the 
mountains  run  parallel  to  the  coast.  In  the  southeast  some  of  the 
peaks  reach  a  height  of  over  a  mile. 

The  mountains  of  eastern  Australia,  like  the  Appalachians  of  North 
America,  are  the  worn-down  remains  of  an  ancient  mountain  system. 
Still  further  like  the  Appalachians,  they  served  to  check  the  extension 
of  early  settlements  inland.  Tasmania  is  really  a  continuation  of  the 
eastern  highland,  as  Newfoundland  is  a  continuation  of  the  mountains 
of  eastern  North  America. 

The  streams  which  flow  eastward  to  the  Pacific,  cascade  down 
the  mountains  in  short  courses.  Of  the  others  in  eastern  Australia 
some  end  in  the  lakes  of  interior  basins,  and  some  evaporate  in  the 
dry  climate  ;  but  many  unite  with  the  Darling  and  Murray  rivers, 
which  are  at  times  navigable  for  long  distances.  During  the  dry 
summer  season,  however,  all  except  the  Murray  may  dwindle  to 
mere  chains  of  water  holes.  A  wave-built  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Murray  closes  it  to  ocean  steamers,  so  that,  unlike  the  Mississippi, 
no  large  cities  have  grown  up  along  its  banlis. 

600 


CLIMATE 


501 


The  coast  line  of  Australia  is  so  regular  that  there  are  few  good  har- 
bors except  in  the  southern  part  where  the  land  has  recently  subsided. 

Off  the  northeastern  coast  is  the  Great  Barrier  Reef,  the  longest  coral 
reef  in  the  world.  This  has  been  built  by  coral  animals,  which  still  thrive 
there  in  great  numbers.  A  few  openings  allow  ships  to  enter  the  quiet 
channel  between  the  reef  and  the  land ;  but  navigation  is  not  easy,  and 
only  an  experienced  pilot  can  avoid  the  dangerous  shoals. 

Climate.  —  Since  Australia  lies  within  the  belt  of  the  southeast 
trade  winds, 
the  eastern 
highland  has  an 
abundant  rain- 
fall on  its  sea- 
ward side  and 
is  clothed  with 
dense  forests. 
After  crossing 
mountains, 
however,  the 
winds  are  so 
dry  that  the 
forest  gradu- 
ally disappears, 
changing  first 
to  open,  park- 
like woodlands, 
then  to  grass- 
covered  up- 
lands, and 
finally  to  desert  Fig.  469. 

lowlands       still  Eucalyptus  forest  in  Australia. 

partly  unexplored.     The  low  interior  mountain  ranges  cause  only  a 
slight  rainfall  which  supplies  the  salt  lakes  of  the  interior. 

During  the  southern  winter  the  interior  becomes  cold,  and  the 
heavy  air  presses  outward  toward  the  coast  as  cold  land  winds ;  but 
during  the  summer  the  dry  interior  is  so  intensely  heated  that  mon- 
soon winds  blow  from  the  northeast  and  bring  equatorial  rain  to  the 
northern  coasts.  In  this  section  are  found  areas  of  tropical  forest. 
Southwestern  Australia  and  Tasmania  are  reached  by  the  prevailing 
westerlies,  with  their  cyclonic  storms,  which  bring  variable  weather 


502 


AUSTRALIA 


and  rainfall,  as  in  eastern  United  States.     These  rainy  sections  are 
also  clothed  with  forests. 

It  is  therefore  only  along  portions  of  the  coast  that  there  is 
enough  rainfall  for  agriculture,  while  the  interior,  and  much  the 
greater  part  of  the  continent,  is  either  arid  or  actual  desert.  Much  of 
the  interior  is  adapted  to  stock  raising,  though  some  parts  are  too  arid 
for  that ;  but  the  southeastern  coast,  with  an  equable  climate  which 

reminds    us   of    the    Mediterranean, 
would  support  a  dense  population. 

Plants. — Australian  vegetation 
is  not  only  peculiar,  but  also  strik- 
ingly adapted  to  the  climate  of  the 
country.  In  the  interior,  as  in  other 
desert  regions,  grass  and  flowering 
plants  have  gained  the  power  to  make 
rapid  growth  and  to  mature  their 
seeds  quickly,  so  that  a  few  days  after 
a  rain  the  barren  sands  become  car- 
peted with  green  as  if  by  magic. 

Among  the  desert  grasses,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  porcupine  grass 
which  grows  on  the  sandy  plains  of  the 
northwest  interior,  and  is  so  hard,  wiry, 
and  spiny  as  to  prevent  passage  through 
it.  Plants  with  leaves  which  taste  of 
salt  also  thrive  here,  being  fitted  for 
growth  on  plains  that  are  too  dry  and 
alkaline  for  grass.  These  "  salt  bushes  " 
are  so  valuable  as  forage  for  sheep  and  cattle  that  they  are  now  introduced 
into  the  arid  section  of  southwestern  United  States. 

The  scrub  trees  that  flourish  in  the  arid  interior  have  developed  a 
foliage  able  to  resist  evaporation.  In  these  interior  forests,  which  the 
settlers  call  "  scrub,"  the  thorny  acacia  and  the  close-set  stems  of  gum  — 
rising  to  a  height  of  a  dozen  feet— form  a  thicket  through  which  a  lost 
traveler  may  wander  until  death  relieves  his  thirst. 

On  the  rainy  slopes  near  the  coast  the  gum  trees  grow  to  a  great  size, 
in  some  cases  four  hundred  feet  in  height.  They  rival  the  redwoods  of 
California,  which  also  thrive  where  damp  winds  blow  from  the  ocean. 
The  undergrowth  of  the  forest  (Fig.  470),  which  is  almost  tropical  in 
character,  includes  tree  ferns,  palms,  and  orchids.  These  dense  woods 
are  called  the  "  bush." 

History.  —  When  discovered,  Australia  was  sparsely  settled  by  blacks 
allied  to  the  negroes  of  Africa,  but  differing  from  them  in  many  respects. 


Fig.  470. 
Undergrowth  in  the  Australian  forest. 


PEOPLE   AND    GOVERNMENT 


608 


Of  these  savages  it  is  estimated  that  about  seventy  thousand  remain,  of 
whom  about  a  third  still  wander  in  the  wild  interior,  scantily  clad  (Fig. 
471),  building  the  rudest  of  shelters,  and  gaining  their  living  by  hunting. 
They  still  use  that  peculiar  weapon,  the  boomerang,  which,  when  properly 
thrown,  will  fly  in  curves  and  even  return  to  the  thrower. 

Although  for  a  long  time  it  had  been  known  that  there  was  an  Austra- 
lian continent,  settlements  were  not  made  there  until  1788.  Neither  the 
country  nor  the  products  were  tempting  to  the  early  Spanish  and  Dutch 
explorers,  and  those  nations  colonized  other  lands  of  greater  promise.  It 
was  not  until  the  famous  English  navigator.  Captain  Cook,  led  an  expedition 
to  this  southern  continent  that  the  fertile  southeastern  coast  was  discovered. 

For  a  time  the  distant  land  was  used  as  a  regular  penal  station  to 
relieve  the  crowded  condition  of  English  jails,  and  naturally  free  settlers 
came  to  the  country  slowly.  But  their  number  gradually  increased,  and, 
after  long  agitation,  the  transportation  of  criminals  was  stopped. 

Almost  at  the  same  time  that  gold  was  discovered  in  California  it 
was  also  found  in  southeastern  Australia,  and  tens  of  thousands  of  people 
rushed  there  to  wash  the  sands  for  the  precious  metal.  Since  the  miners 
needed  supplies,  many  of  the  settlers  turned  their  attention  to  other  indus- 
tries, especially  agriculture  and  grazing.  Therefore  in  Australia,  as  in 
California,  the  gold  mines  led  quickly  to  the  development  of  the  country^s 
resources. 

New  South  Wales,  as  the  first  colony  was  called,  finally  grew  so  large, 
and  the  settlements  were  so  scattered,  that  it  became  difficult  to  control  it 
under  a  single  government.  Consequently  Tas- 
mania, Victoria,  and  Queensland  were  succes- 
sively set  off  as  separate  colonies.  South 
Australia  and  West  Australia,  however,  were 
settled  as  distinct  colonies. 

The  colonies  prospered  under  their  popular 
government,  each  with  its  own  laws,  some  hav- 
ing free  trade,  some  imposing  tariffs  on  goods 
imported  from  other  colonies.  Common  in- 
terests, however,  early  awakened  a  desire  for 
union  ;  and  finally,  on  January  1,  1901,  they 
were  united  to  form  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia.  This  new  commonwealth  has  a 
government  similar  to  that  of  Canada,  and  is 
independent  of  England  in  all  matters  except 
those  which  affect  the  British  Empire  as  a 
whole.  The  population,  which  equals  that  of 
the  United  States  when  her  Constitution  was 
adopted,  is  rapidly  growing. 

Nearly  all  the   Australian   settlers   have 
come  from  the  British  Isles,   and  the  unity 
of  the  race  has  led  to  a  peaceful  growth.     As  in  England,  education  has 
been  encouraged,  church  schools  now  being  replaced  by  practically  free, 


Fig.  471. 

Australian  savages.    The  boy 
has  a  boomerang  in  his  hand. 


504 


AUSTRALIA 


compulsory  education  in  public  schools.  There  are  colleges  at  the  capitals, 
and  two  important  universities.  The  English  love  of  outdoor  sports  is  fully- 
maintained,  and  great  skill  is  naturally  developed  in  a  climate  where  it  is 
possible  to  practice  cricket,  football,  tennis,  and  rowing  all  the  year  round. 

Sheep  Raising.  — Although  it  was  gold  that  brought  population 
to  Australia,  her  greatest  wealth  lies  in  her  flocks  of  Merino  sheep. 
Australian  wool  is  the  finest  in  the  world.  Sheep  were  first  known 
in  Asia,  where  doubtless  they  were  originally  wild  animals ;  and 

the  ancestors  of  the  Merino 


PHILIPPINE 
ISLANDS 


AL'STRALIA 

AND 

ISLANDS  OF  THK  PACIFIC, 
Density  of 
PopiilaUon. 

,_,  Leas  than 
tJ  1  per  Square  Mile. 
Ea   1-25  per  8q.  Mile. 
^  •25-125  per  Sq.  Mile, 
^  125-500  per  Sq.  Mile. 


INDIAN 


O  C  E  A  N         ^ 

TASMANI.C^ 


were  such  as  those  tended 
by  Jacob.  From  Asia  the 
breed  spread  along  the 
Mediterranean  and  found 
in  Spain  a  favorable,  dry 
climate.  From  this  point 
flocks  were  taken  to  the 
early  Dutch  colony  of 
South  Africa  and  thence  to 
Australia.  The  Merino 
sheep  had  for  centuries 
been  carefully  tended  in 
Europe  and  separated  from 
coarse-wooled  varieties; 
and  when  it  was  found 
that  the  climate  and  natural 
herbage  of  Australia  really 
improved  the  quality  of  their  wool,  the  English  demand  for  that  prod- 
uct led  to  a  rapid  development  of  the  sheep-raising  industry.  It  has 
now  spread  to  the  newly  discovered  pastures  west  of  the  mountains. 

In  the  early  days  of  Australia  the  flocks  were  reared  upon  the  unf enced 
government  land,  as  in  western  United  States  (p.  161).  The  sheep  were 
driven  to  pasture  and  water,  and  cared  for  at  night  by  lonely  shepherds, 
much  as  in  the  days  of  David.  But  now  the  land  is  largely  fenced  with 
wire,  each  sheep  station  having  its  own  "rwn,"  or  ranch.  The  largest 
ranches  contain  fully  a  hundred  thousand  sheep,  and  employ  men  enough 
to  make  a  little  village,  with  a  store,  a  church,  and  a  school.  As  in 
Argentina,  each  run  is  divided  into  sections,  or  ^^ paddocks,^  by  wire  fenc- 
ing, so  that  the  sheep  of  different  ages  and  conditions  may  be  separated. 
The  mildness  of  the  climate  makes  it  unnecessary  to  provide  winter  pro- 
tection for  the  animals,  and  now  that  the  wild  dogs  have  been  exterminated, 
the  sheep  no  longer  need  much  care  from  shepherds. 


Fig.  472. 

Density  of  population  in  Australia  and  neighboring 
islands. 


AGBICULTURX 


606 


Animal  Products.  —  To-day  grazing  is  the  characteristic  and 
most  important  occupation  in  Australia.  There  are  over  a  hundred 
million  sheep,  and  fully  half  the  exports  consist  of  wool ;  but  frozen 
or  canned  mutton  and  beef,  together  with  tallow  and  hides,  are  also 
sent  to  England.  Horses  are  bred  for  export,  and  cattle  and  swine 
are  raised  in  large  numbers.  While  the  sheep  graze  in  the  arid  inte- 
rior, cattle  are  more  numerous  in  the  districts  where  there  is  heavier 
rain.  Many  cattle,  especially  near  the  coast,  are  raised  for  dairy 
products,  and  butter  is  exported  to  England.  At  the  season  when 
the  cows  of  Belgium  and  Denmark  are  stalled  because  of  the  cold, 
the  dairy  herds  of  New  South  Wales  are  feeding  on  fresh  pastures. 
Explain  the  causes  of  the  difference. 

Agriculture.  —  Since  agriculture  secures  a  larger  return  from  the 
soil  than  grazing,  sheep  have  been  driven  from  the  damp  lowlands 
and  from  those  portions  of  the  plat- 
eaus where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient 
for  crops.  Even  in  the  interior  there 
is  farming  where  irrigation  is  found 
possible.  In  some  cases  water  is  sup- 
plied from  streams;  in  others,  from 
artesian  wells. 

Wheat  is  the  most  important  crop 
aside  from  hay,  and  enough  is  raised 
to  place  Australia  twelfth  among 
lands  raising  this  grain. 

The  farm  products  are  distributed 
according  to  climate.  For  example, 
while  oats  and  other  hardy  grains  in- 
crease southward  to  Tasmania  —  since 
cold  increases  in  that  direction  —  corn 
is  important  only  from  New  South  Wales 
northward.  There  are  large  sugar  plant- 
ations on  the  warm  coast  of  Queensland ;  and  in  western  Australia,  where 
there  are  gold  mines  in  the  arid  interior,  much  hay  is  raised  for  the  animals 
employed  at  the  mines. 

As  in  our  Pacific  states,  fruits  are  an  important  product.  They  range 
from  tropical  varieties  on  the  northern  coast  to  oranges  and  other  warm 
temperate  fruits  southward,  and  finally,  in  the  highlands  and  in  Tasmania, 
to  the  orchard  and  small  fruits  of  the  cool  temperate  lands.  In  Victoria 
and  South  Australia,  vineyards  for  the  production  of  wine  are  of  impor- 
tance. Some  of  this  fruit  raising  is  carried  on  by  the  aid  of  irrigation,  as 
for  instance  in  the  Murray  River  valley,  where  the  water  is  supplied  by 


Fig.  473. 

The  last  Tasmanian,  a  race  now  en- 
tirely extinct. 


606 


AVBTEALIA 


the  melting  snows  of  the  mountains.     In  what  months  would  the  snows 
melt  there  ? 

Mining.  —  The  gold  of  Australia,  like  that  of  California,  was  first 
obtained  from  the  gravels,  and  mines  were  later  opened  along  the 
veins  in  the  mountain  rocks.  Unlike  the  condition  in  western  United 
States,  however,  absence  of  water  has  prevented  hydraulic  mining  on 
a  large  scale.  Gold  mining  is  still  of  great  importance.  New  deposits 
are  discovered  as  the  country  is  explored,  the  recent  development  of 
western  Australia  being  largely  due  to  such  discoveries. 

Copper  mining  greatly  aided  in  the  early  development  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, and  rich  copper  mines  are  now  worked  in  Tasmania.  Silver  and 
tin  are  other  important  mineral  products.  Coal  is  well  distributed  and  of 
good  quality. 

Manufacturing.  —  Some  wool  is  manufactured  into  cloth;  some  leather 
is  tanned  and  made  into  shoes  ;  and  much  flour  is  made  from  the  wheat. 
There  are  sawmills  and  planing  mills ;  and  other  forms  of  simple  manu- 
facturing are  carried  on.  But  for  the  most  part  the  raw  products  of  Aus- 
tralia are  shipped  abroad  to  be  manufactured.  Most  of  these  products  go 
to  England,  and  the  commonwealth  depends  upon  the  mother  country  for 
most  of  its  manufactured  articles.  Australia  is  passing  from  the  pastoral 
to  the  agricultural  stage  of  her  development,  and  the  stage  of  extensive 
manufactures  is  yet  to  come. 

Cities.  —  Australian  cities  have  grown  very  rapidly,  and  one 
third  of  the  people  live  in  the  capitals  of  the  six  colonies.     Favored 


%■'•"                                                                                                                                                                                                    ': 

^^^^^^^^^ 

4^-i^^iK^';>''T-'- '''"■,-* r-^i^^V;^;';  •  ■  ■          i 

HKSm^^^ 

'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^"^^^^J^^ 

Fig.  474. 
Sydney  harbor. 


OITIMB 


60T 


as  the  seats  of  government  and  as  seaports,  and  connected  with  the 
interior  by  government  railways,  these  capitals  have  become  the 
leading  commercial  centers.  They  are  characterized  by  fine  govern- 
ment buildings  and  by  abundant  provision  of  parks  and  gardens 
for  the  people.  Their  large  suburbs  afford  homes  for  the  working- 
men  and  save  them  from  the  crowded  life  in  tenement  houses. 

Melbourne,  the  largest  city  in  Australia  and  the  capital  of 
Victoria,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  head  of  a  broad  harbor. 
Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South  Wales,  founded  in  1788,  and. 


Fig.  475. 
A  view  of  a  part  of  Sydney. 


therefore,  the  oldest  city  of  Australia,  is  noted  for  its  fine  harbor 
(Figs.  474  and  475).  Both  of  these  cities  rank  among  the  great  sea- 
ports of  the  British  Empire.  Adelaide  is  a  third  large  city.  Of 
which  division  is  it  the  capital?     Name  the  other  capitals. 

Since  nine  tenths  of  the  Australians  live  on  the  coast  lands,  much  of 
the  commerce  is  carried  on  by  means  of  steamboats,  and  most  of  the  cities 
are  seaports  connected  by  rail  with  the  interior  farms,  mines,  and  sheep 
country.  A  few  mining  centers,  like  Ballarat  and  Bendigo  in  Victoria, 
have  become  large  towns.  Ballarat  owes  its  growth  partly  to  its  trade  as 
the  center  of  a  fine  farming  and  grazing  country. 


508  ISLAND    GR0UF8 

Island  Groups 

New  Zealand.  —  More  than  a  thousand  miles  southeast  of  Australia 
are  the  two  large,  mountainous  islands  of  New  Zealand.  In  the 
South  Island  there  are  great  glaciers  among  the  mountains,  while  in 
the  North  Island  there  are  active  volcanoes,  and  also  hot  springs  and 
geysers,  like  those  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 

Since  these  islands  lie  in  the  course  of  the  stormy  westerlies, 
there  is  heavy  rainfall  on  the  western  slopes.     Therefore  the  moun- 


FiG.  476. 
A  view  in  New  Zealand. 

tains  are  clothed  with  forests  of  pine  and  other  trees,  with  many 
kinds  of  ferns  and  tree-ferns  beneath.  On  the  lee  or  eastern  slopes 
the  rainfall  is  less,  and  the  land  is  covered  with  wiry  grasses. 

In  the  south  the  crops  are  those  of  the  cool  temperate  belt  ;  but 
in  the  north  the  climate  is  mild  enough  for  oranges.  Can  you  sug- 
gest how  ocean  currents  may  influence  the  temperature  of  the  north 
and  south  ?  (Fig.  267.)  What  effect  must  the  presence  of  water  on 
all  sides  have  upon  the  temperature  ? 

New  Zealand  is  so  distant  from  other  lands  that  few  of  the  larger 
animals,  except  birds,  have  ever  reached  the  islands.  The  native  people, 
or  Maoris,  who  must  have  come  to  the  islands  in  boats,  were  a  hardy, 
warlike  race,  living  in  protected  villages,  amidst  cultivated  fields.  Their 
opposition  to  newcomers  delayed  settlement  by  the  English  until  a  half- 
century  after  the  founding  of  Sydney.     They  are  now  overpowered,  and 


MABT  INJblBM  609 

those  that  survive  live  mostly  in  the  interior  of  the  North  Island.  Many- 
have  so  fully  adopted  civilized  ways  that  they  are  allowed  representatives 
in  the  legislature. 

As  in  Australia,  pastoral  industries  take  the  lead.  There  are  twenty 
million  sheep,  and  frozen  mutton  and  wool  are  exported  to  England. 
Cattle  are  likewise  kept,  and  butter  is  exported.  Agriculture  is  important, 
especially  in  the  districts  of  fertile  volcanic  soils  on  the  North  Island ;  but 
much  land  that  is  suited  to  farming  has  never  been  cleared  of  forest. 
There  are  both  gold  and  coal  mines  among  the  mountains ;  and  from  their 
slopes  are  obtained  valuable  timber  and  a  gum  used  for  varnishes.  Manu- 
facturing is  only  slightly  developed,  and  is  chiefly  for  home  use. 

Although  the  industries  and  life  of  this  English  colony  resemble  those 
in  Australia,  its  interests  are  so  different  that  they  have  prevented  its 
joining  the  Australian  federation  —  just  as  the  island  colony  of  New- 
foundland has  declined  to  join  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  situation 
of  these  islands  in  the  temperate  zone  is  favorable  to  rapid  progress ;  the 
vigorous  immigrants  from  the  British  Isles  have  developed  the  resources 
wonderfully,  and  have  established  one  of  the  best  governments  in  the 
world. 

Many  short  lines  of  railway  connect  the  settled  interior  with  the  sea- 
ports ;  roads  and  stage  lines  extend  to  the  more  distant  districts ;  and 
steamers  ply  around  the  coasts  and  to  distant  countries.  There  are  four 
prominent  cities  of  nearly  the  same  size,  the  smallest  of  which  is  Wel- 
lington, the  capital,  and  the  largest,  Auckland,  about  as  large  as  Duluth 
in  Minnesota. 

The  East  Indies.  —  Between  Asia  and  Australia  are  hundreds  of 
islands,  some  very  large,  others  so  small  that  they  find  no  place  on 
our  map.  Of  these  the  great  majority  have  animals,  plants,  and 
people  of  Asiatic  origin.  New  Guinea,  however,  which  is  nearest 
to  Australia,  bears  a  resemblance  not  to  Asia  but  to  Australia.  It 
is,  therefore,  usually  considered  a  part  of  Australasia,  while  the 
islands  to  the  west  and  northwest  are  classed  with  Asia. 

New  Guinea,  north  of  Australia,  is  one  of  the  largest  islands  in 
the  world,  having  an  area  equal  to  Texas  and  Pennsylvania  com- 
bined. Although  three  times  the  size  of  New  Zealand,  it  contains 
a  smaller  population,  composed  mainly  of  savages  (Figs.  477  and 
478).  This  difference  is  due  to  its  position  in  the  torrid  zone.  The 
heavy  tropical  rainfall  has  clothed  most  of  its  surface  with  dense 
forests,  so  that  the  high  mountain  ranges  and  the  unhealthful  low- 
lands of  the  interior  are  almost  unknown. 

While  the  islands  farther  west  are  overrun  with  Malays  from  Asia,  the 
natives  of  New  Guinea  resemble  the  native  Australians.     The  animal  life 


610 


IBLAN1>    QROUFS 


also  resembles  that  of  Australia,  a  fact  indicating  that  this  island,  like 
Australia,  has  long  been  separated  from  Asia.  Former  connection  with 
Australia  is  further  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  two  are  now  separated 
only  by  a  shallow  sea. 

The  East  Indies  proper  also  have  a  tropical  climate,  and  are 
clothed  with  dense  forests  in  which  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  as 
well  as  other  Asiatic  animals,  are  still  found.     Most  of  the  natives 

are  Mohammedan  Malays 
from  Asia,  but  some  of 
them  are  pagans. 

The  Philippine  Islands^ 
which  belong  to  the  United 
States,  are  really  a  north- 
ern extension  of  the  East 
Indies.  What  can  you  tell 
about  them  ? 

Many  of  the  other 
islands  of  this  region, 
including  Sumatra,  Java, 
the  Celebes,  and  a  large 
part  of  Borneo  and  New 
Guinea,  are  Dutch  colonies. 
What  nation  controls  the 
island  of  Timor?  To 
which  nation  does  north- 
ern Borneo  belong  ?  Bor- 
neo, with  a  greater  area 
than  all  the  New  England 
and  Middle  Atlantic  states  together,  is  one  of  the  largest  islands  in 
the  world.  The  immense  size  of  these  islands  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  Sumatra  is  larger  than  California,  while  Java  has  a  greater 
area  than  New  York  State. 

All  of  the  larger  islands  are  mountainous ;  in  fact,  they  are  parts  of 
mountain  ranges  rising  out  of  the  sea,  and  among  them  are  many  active 
volcanoes,  some  of  which  have  had  terribly  destructive  eruptions.  There 
are  lowlands  near  the  coasts,  and  many  coral  reefs  skirting  them.  Indeed, 
a  large  number  of  the  smaller  islands  are  merely  coral  reefs  slightly 
elevated  above  the  ocean. 

Since  they  are  so  near  the  equator,  and  therefore  have  a  heavy  rain- 
fall, these  islands  have  tropical  products.  The  forests  supply  valuable 
woods   and   gums,  including   gutta-percha  and    camphor.     Large  areas. 


Fig.  477. 
Houses  in  the  trees  in  New  Guinea. 


EAST   INDIMS 


611 


especially  in  Java,  are  highly  cultivated  and  produce  quantities  of  rice, 
sugar  cane,  and  coffee.     In  the  production  of  the  last  two  articles  Java 


Fig.  478. 
A  New  Guinea  village  built  in  the  water  for  protection  against  enemies. 

is  one  of  the  most  important  regions  of  the  world  (Fig.  507).     Among 
the  noted  products  of  the  East  Indies  are  spices,  such  as  pepper,  cloves, 
and  nutmegs ;  in  fact,  one  of  the  island  groups  is  known  as  the  Spice  Islands. 
What  is  the  other  name?     There 
are  also  valuable  minerals,  including 
tin,  gold,  and  precious  stones. 

The  Dutch  have  been  remarkably 
successful  in  managing  their  East 
Indian  colonies,  which  are  a  source  of 
great  wealth;  yet  the  larger  islands 
are  so  mountainous  and  the  forests 
so  dense,  that  great  areas  are  scarcely 
known.  The  Dutch  East  Indies  are 
fifty  times  as  large  as  the  Nether- 
lands and  have  seven  times  as  many 
inhabitants,  or  nearly  half  as  many 
as  the  United  States.  Fia.  479. 

The  largest  city  among  these     ^  °**^^®  *»«^s«  Elands  ^"^"""^^^  ^^"""^^^ 
islands  is  Manila,  in  the  Philip- 
pines ;    the  next    in  size   is   Bat  A  via,  the  center  of    the   Dutch 
colonial  government. 


612 


ISLAND    GROUPS 


Islands  of  the  Pacific.  —  The  map  (Fig.  403)  shows  the  western  Pacific 
dotted  with  island  groups ;  but  these  islands  are  so  small  that,  although 
there  are  many  hundreds  of  them,  their  combined  areas  are  little  more 
than  half  that  of  New  Zealand.  They  are  the  higher  peaks  of  great 
mountain  folds  rising  from  the  ocean  floor.  Many  of  them  are  volcanoes, 
others  submerged  peaks  upon  which  corals  have  grown  and  formed  coral 
islands. 

Although  missionaries  have  converted  many  of  the  inhabitants  to 
Christianity,  others  remain  savages,  and  some  practice  cannibalism. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  life  on  the  "  low,"  or  coral,  and 
that  on  the  "  high,"  or  volcanic,  islands.  Volcanic  islands,  like  Fiji,  the 
peaks  of  which  rise  several  thousand  feet,  are  heavily  forested  on  their 


L^^^.    '^  — ^- 

..  ^ 

.^/'                 '^0.^ 

MIHMLim^S^ 

m^'^.  .    . 

»            1        f|„,„ „„/               "-^B 

FiQ.  480. 
A  native  village  in  the  Fiji  Islands. 


rainy,  windward  slopes;  and  their  fertile  soil  encourages  agriculture. 
Thus  the  coffee  plantations  of  New  Caledonia  and  the  sugar  plantations 
of  Fiji  recall  the  products  of  the  volcanic  Hawaiian  Islands.  As  in 
Hawaii,  also,  bananas  and  pineapples  are  raised  for  home  consumption 
and  for  export. 

On  the  low  coral  islands,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cocoa  palm  is  the  main- 
stay of  human  life,  supplying  food,  clothing,  shelter,  boats,  many  utensils, 
and  the  means  of  trade  as  well.  Copra,  the  main  export  from  Samoa  and 
from  many  of  the  Pacific  islands,  is  the  dried  meat  of  the  cocoanut,  of 
value  for  its  oil  and  as  food. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS  513 

Review  Questions.  —  Australia.  (1)  What  about  its  position,  area,  and 
population?  (2)  Where  are  the  mountains?  (3)  What  resemblance  is  there 
to  North  America  ?  (4)  How  do  the  streams  vary  in  the  several  sections  ? 
(5)  What  is  the  nature  of  the  coast?     (6)   Tell  about  the  Great  Barrier  Reef. 

(7)  How  does  the  rainfall  vary  in  the  different  parts  of  Australia?  Give  the 
reasons.  (8)  What  differences  in  plant  life  are  thus  caused  ?  (9)  What  is  the 
influence  on  industries  ?  (10)  Mention  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  plants 
are  adapted  to  their  surroundings.  (11)  Tell  about  the  forests.  (12)  Tell  about 
the  natives.  (13)  Give  reasons  why  Australia  was  not  settled  earlier.  (14)  What 
finally  led  to  rapid  settlement  and  development?  (15)  Tell  about  the  government. 
(16)  Tell  about  sheep  raising :  the  Merino  sheep;  introduction  to  Australia;  de- 
velopment of  the  industry ;  care  of  the  sheep.  (17)  What  are  the  animal  products  ? 
(18)  Tell  about  farming :  water  for  irrigation;  principal  products;  variation  in 
crops  according  to  climate.  (19)  What  mineral  products  are  found?  (20)  What 
is  the  condition  of  manufacturing  ?      (21)  Why  are  the  capitals  so  important  ? 

(22)  Name  and  locate  the  three  largest  cities;   what  can  you  tell  about  each? 

(23)  What  about  other  towns? 

Island  Groups.  (24)  Tell  about  New  Zealand  :  its  surface  features ;  climate  ; 
native  animals  and  people;  leading  industries;  development;  cities.  (25)  Tell 
about  New  Guinea :  size ;  position ;  climate ;  people ;  animals ;  resemblance  to 
Australia;  resources.  (26)  What  about  the  animals,  plants,  and  people  of  the 
East  Indies?  (27)  To  what  nations  do  the  islands  belong?  (28)  What  about 
their  size?  (29)  Tell  about  their  physiography,  climate,  and  products.  (30) 
What  about  the  success  of  the  Dutch  in  the  East  Indies  and  the  extent  of  their 
possessions  there  ?  (31)  Tell  about  the  small  island  groups :  their  names ; 
position;  origin;  government;  people;  products. 

Comparisons.  —  (1)  Australia  resembles  South  Africa  in  its  surface,  climate, 
occupations,  and  products.  State  how  this  is  true.  (2)  Australia  also  resembles 
western  United  States  in  climate,  in  occupation  and  products,  and  in  the  order  of 
development  of  her  resources.  Describe  these  points  of  resemblance.  (3)  In 
what  respects  does  southern  South  America  (Chile  and  Argentina)  resemble 
Australia?  (4)  What  differences  are  there  in  climate  due  to  difference  in  form  of 
the  two  land  masses  ?  (5)  What  differences  in  the  present  condition  of  develop- 
ment, due  to  the  history  and  the  races  of  each?  (6)  What  part  of  Australia  has 
the  same  latitude,  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  that  southern  Florida  has  in  the 
northern?     (7)  Which  of  our  states  most  nearly  equals  New  Zealand  in  area? 

(8)  What  peninsula  of  Europe  resembles  New  Zealand  in  shape  ?  How  do  the 
two  countries  compare  in  area  ?  In  population  ?  (9)  What  advantages  over 
Australia  has  the  United  States  enjoyed  in  that  it  has  attracted  settlers  from  so  many 
different  nations?  (10)  AVhat  part  of  South  America  most  resembles  the  East 
Indies  in  climate  and  products?    Make  the  same  comparison  for  North  America. 

Suggestions. —  (1)  If  it  were  within  your  power,  how  would  you  arrange 
the  highlands  of  Australia  so  as  to  secure  the  most  even  distribution  of  rain? 
(2)  Estimate  the  greatest  length  of  New  Zealand.  (3)  Estimate  the  distance 
from  Batavia  to  Manila.  (4)  Write  your  impression  of  the  climate  of  Melbourne 
in  January;  in  July.  (5)  Through  some  fruit  dealer  obtain  a  cocoanut  in  its 
husks  and  examine  it.  (6)  Read  Whittier's  poem  on  the  Palm  Tree.  (7)  Learn 
something  about  the  work  of  missionaries  in  the  small  Pacific  islands.  (8)  Col- 
lect pictures  for  the  school,  showing  the  islands  and  their  life.  (9)  By  what  routes 
can  one  go  from  New  York  City    to  Australia  ?    Through  what  waters  ?    Which 


514 


SUGQEBTIONB 


would  be  the  shortest?  About  how  many  miles?  (10)  Answer  the  same  ques- 
tions for  a  voyage  from  New  York  to  Manila.  (11)  Read  in  Tarr's  «  Elementary 
Geology  **  (pp.  251-256)  about  the  origin  of  atolls.  (12)  Read  about  the  eruption 
of  Krakatoa  (same  book,  p.  343)  in  the  Sunda  Strait,  near  Batavia. 

For  References,  see  Teacher*s  Book. 


Fia.  FF. 
A  Natiye  Kanaka  Girl  in  Holiday  Dress,  Hawaiian  Islandi. 


THE     UNITED      STATES      COMPARED     WITH     OTHER 

COUNTRIES 


Area  and  Population.  —  In  spite  of  the  vast  extent  of  the  United 
States,  there  are  three  empires  in  the  Old  World  with  a  greater 


BrlttsH  Errvpire 


FUissimtllmpire  CMrvese        VnUeit 
Errvpire       states 


Belgium,  6U5 


England,  U36 


Japan,  322 


Italy,  mi. 


Germany, '290 


Fia.  481. 
Area  of  the  five  largest  nations. 

area.  Which  are  they  ?  (Fig.  481.)  Which  country  is  fifth 
in  size?  Compare  the  United  States  with  each  of  these  in  area. 
The  United  States  also  ranks  fourth  in  population  (Fig.  483). 
Name  the  five  most 
populous  countries  in 
the  order  of  their  rank. 
What  facts  do  you 
discover  by  compar- 
ing Figures  481  and 
482?  Figure  482 
shows  the  density  of 
population^  or  the  num- 
ber of  people  per  square 
mile,  in  some  of  the 
countries  in  the  world. 
From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  United 
States  is  very  thinly 
settled,  compared 
with   many  countries. 


China,  262 


Cuba,  S6 


India,  211 


U.  States,  21 


C  Colony,  9 


Bra2il,  5 


France,  190 


Hawaii,  20 


Argentina,  5 


Spain,  96 


Mexico,  18 


Canada,  1.1*5 


Phil.  Is.,  60 


Russia,  17 


Aust'lia,l.n 


Fig.  482. 
Density  of  population  of  some  of  the  countries. 

Compare  the  United  States  in  this  regard  with  Belgium,  England, 
Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

15— A  »  (16 


516 


COMPARISON    OF   COUNTRIES 


Leading  Raw  Products.  —  Nevertheless,  the  United  States  leads  the 
world  in  many  very  important  respects  and  approaches  leadership  in 


Chinese  EmplreprUL^F^mplrfi 


48fi,6B3,030 


MS,ail,«lT 


149,299.300 


German!^ 


84,21«,433l60,6«l,2T8 
I 


FiQ.  483. 
The  five  most  populous  nations,  1906. 


several  others.  Figure  484  shows  that  no  nation  is  a  close  rival  to 
us  in  the  production  of  com.  What  countries,  however,  raise  large 
quantities  of  it  ?     Why  is  no  corn  raised  in  the  British  Isles  ?  (p. 


Fig.  4M. 
Sketch  map  to  show  the  approximate  distribution  of  corn. 

329.)  Wheat  is  more  widely  cultivated  than  corn  (Fig.  485).  Yet 
we  are  far  in  the  lead  in  that  grain  (Fig.  486).  Point  out  (Fig.  485) 
the  leading  wheat  fields  of  the  world.     Which  sections  are  important 


^ 


'?      SL 


7,  lUlj. 
8.  Argutlu.   ».  8ip«|i  

!2.  Ahmi.ImU. 


Fio.  485. 
ApprozimAte  diitribation  of  wheat. 


COMPARISON    OF   COUNTRIES 


617 


for  both  wheat  and  corn  ?     On  which  side  of  the  Atlantic  is  wheat 
raised  farthest  north  ?     Why  ? 

Cotton  is  limited  to  warm  climates  (Fig.  487),  so  that  compara- 

UrutedStates      ^^^^stan 

^'^P^^^       rmrvce  Brtttstv  Austria 


824,725,000 


India 


JJunffory 


819,086,000 


200,668,000 


Fig.  486. 
The  five  leading  wheat-producing  countries,  1906. 

tively  few  countries  raise  it.  Name  the  five  that  lead  in  its  pro- 
duction (Fig.  488).  To  what  extent  does  the  output  of  the  United 
States  surpass  that  of  the  four  other  countries  together  ?    In  what  parts 


Fig.  487. 
Approximate  distribution  of  cotton. 

of  the  United  States  is  most  cotton  manufacturing  carried  on  ?    What 
other  countries  have  important  cotton-manufacturing  industries  ? 

Note  the  distribution  of  %liee'p  and  cattle  (Fig.  489).     What  is  our 
rank  in  the  production  of  wool?  (Fig.  490.)    Yet  we  consume  much 

more  than  we  raise.    Recall 

India    3,926,400 
China  1.320,000 
Indta^  ^.,      ^ 


l^xttedKStates 


13,660,766 

Balea^JOOlba. 


^yPt'  1,822,978 

JKorea     aoo,4o» 

Fig.  488. 
The  fiye  leading  cotton-producing  countries,  1907. 


some  facts  concerning  sheep 
raising  in  Australia,  Argen- 
tina, and  the  United  States. 
What  nations  have  impor 
tant  woolen  manufacturing? 
The  extreme  importance 
of  coal  and  iron  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  has  often 


518 


COMPARISON    OF   C0UNTBIE8 


been  emphasized.     But  Figure  491  represents  the  coal  fields  as  very 
limited.     What  countries  have  little  or  none  ?     Name  the  leading 


Fig.  489. 
Approximate  distribution  of  sheep. 


coal-producing  sections,  and  state  the  rank  of  the  United  States  in 
this  mineral  (Fig.  492). 

Is  iron  ore  more  or  less  widely  distributed  than  coal?    (Fig.  493.) 


Australasia 

Russia 

480,000,000  PoundB 

Argentina 

TTnited.  Sff  «     ^^n  t*oA 

370,000,000 

861,100,000 

'^••••'••»"* 

296,488,138 

Kingdom 

133,124,762 

Fig.  490. 
The  five  leading  wool-producing  countries,  1904-5. 

How  does  the  United  States  rank  in  the  output  of  this  mineral  (Fig. 
493)  ;  also  in  the  production  oi  fig  iron  (Fig.  494),  which  demands 


Fig.  491. 
Approximate  distribution  of  coal. 


COMPARISON    OF   COUNTRIES 


519 


coal  as  well  as  iron  ore?  How  does  the  output  of  coal  and  iron 
correspond  to  the  importance  of  countries  as  manufacturing  nations  ? 
(Fig.  500.) 


IHUed^States  cr^at  Britain 


851,080,801 


Cermany 


'Austria 


193,033,259 


jUiat.Nunff.  40,860.000 

J^r'tUXCe     34,313,645 


Fig.  492. 
The  five  leading  coal-producing  countries,  1906. 

Where  are  the  principal  sz7ver-mining  sections  ?  (Fig.  495.)    And 
how  do  we  compare  with  other  countries  in  this  product  ?    (Fig.  496.) 


Fig.  493. 
Approximate  distribution  of  iron  mines. 

Notice  to  what  extent  the  world  is  indebted  to  the  New  World  for 
silver.     Tell  about  the  distribution  of  gold  (Fig.  497),  and  give  our 

VrCitedtStates 


Germany         TJ't'd  Kingdom 


12,478,067 


10,210,178 


rhan^e 


3,319.032 


HUSM 


2,360,000 


Fig.  494. 
The  five  leading  countries  in  the  production  of  pig  iron,  1906. 

rank  in  the  production  of  that  metal  (Fig.  498).  How  does  the 
value  of  the  total  gold  production  compare  with  that  of  silver  in  the 
five  leading  regions  for  each? 


S20 


COMPARISON    OF    COUNTRIES 


The  United  States  leads  the  world  in  the  production  of  petroleum^ 
or  mineral  oil,  the  second  most  important  district  being  in  Russia 
near  the  Caspian  Sea.     Other  districts  produce  little  petroleum. 


Fig.  495. 
Approximate  distribution  of  silver  mining. 

Manufacturing  and  Commerce.  — According  to  Figure  499,  on  what 
two  continents  is  there  the  greatest  development  of  manufacturing? 


United  States 

Mexico 

'38,256,400 

ST,881,iOO 

Bcltvia  2.096,300 

9,687,000 

Chtl0 

ChUe 

269,300 

Fm.  496. 
The  five  leading  silver-producing  countries,  1906. 

What  other  smaller  sections  are  active  in  this  industry  ?     Consider- 
ing the  abundance  of  our  raw  materials  and  the  energy  and  intelli- 


FiQ.  497. 
Approximate  diEitriVuttdn  of  gold  mining. 


C0MPABI80N    OF    COUNTBIES 


521 


gence  of  our  people,  it  is  not  surprising  that  we  surpass  all  other 
countries  in  such  work  (Fig.  500).  State  the  rank  of  other  leading 
nations  in  this  occupation. 


Cape  of  Good  Hope 

United  States 

Auatralia 

119,116,603 

•4,37S.800 

SS,891.400 

Russta    Canaan. 

19,494,700 

12.028,900 

Fia.  498. 
The  five  leading  gold-producing  countries,  1906. 

In  provision  for  transportation  hy  rail  the  United  States  also  takes 
the  leading  place.  It  has  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  miles  of 
railway  of  any  nation  (Fig.  501),  though  several  small  European 


Fig.  499. 
Approximate  distribution  of  manufacturing. 


countries  have  a  greater  development  of  railways  in  proportion  to 
their  area.     The  United    States   ranks    second    in    provision   for 


United  States 


^^En^^n^M^Fvance  Russia 


Fig.  500. 
The  five  leading  manufacturing  countries,  1900. 

transportation  hy  water  (Fig.  502).     State  the  rank  of  the  five  chief 
QQuntries    in   total   length   of    railways^   and   in   merchant   mari'm* 


522 


COMPARISON    OF    C0UNTMIE8 


umteastates 


^ 

824,363 

RitS3ta 

Cemum 

ypnwiu 

^VtAKh 

34,669 

82,743 

28,430 

22.847 

Fig.  501. 
The  five  countries  having  the  greatest  length  of  railways,  1906. 


Give  reasons  why  the  United  Kingdom  should  lead  in  merchant 
marine  (p.   343).     Why  should  Norway  be  of  importance  in  this 

respect?  (p.  376.) 
All  these  facts 
prepare  us  for  Fig- 
ure 503,  which  shows 
that  the  United 
States  is  the  wealth- 
iest nation  on  the 
face  of  the  earth. 
Compare  our  wealth 
with  that  of  other 
leading  countries.  In  how  many  and  in  what  respects  have  our  prod- 
ucts and  industries  been  shown  to  lead  all  nations  of  the  world  ? 

Dependence  upon  Other  Nations. — Altogether  the  United  States 
may  be  considered  a  wonderfully  favored  and  independent  nation, 
since  it  has  such 

a  wealth  of  raw  .l^^^'^etf  Kingdom 
products,  and 
such  an  extensive 
development  of 
manufacturing. 
We,  probably,  bet- 
ter than  any  other 
nation,  could  de- 
pend upon  our- 
selves alone  for  all  that  we  need,  if  occasion  should  arise.  Yet  so 
closely  related  are  the  nations  of  the  world  that,  if  war  arises  be- 
tween two  of  them,  our  industries  and  markets  are  affected.  This 
is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  we  produce  far  more  than  we  need  of 
certain  commodities,  as  wheat,  cotton,  meat,  and  iron,  for  which  a 


17,666,867      ToflS 

Untteastates 

6,674,969 

^                               Nether. 
Oertn'y  Norway       l„^nd.^ 

3,932,109 

1,902,966 

768.688 

S^f?^^i:^._ 

Fig.  502. 
The  five  countries  having  the  largest  merchant  marine,  1906.1 


United  States 


116,000   million 


Dollar 


Gt.  Britain 


France 


48,806 


German  ju 


Russia 


86,000 


Fig.  503. 
The  five  wealthiest  nations,  1907. 
1  Tonnage  of  United  States  in  1907,  6,938,791 


OOMPARiaON    OF   COUNTRIES 


528 


market  must  be  found  abroad.  These  we  export.  But  it  is  also 
due  to  the  fact  that  we  are  partly  or  wholly  dependent  upon  foreign 
countries  for  certain  other  articles.     These  we  import. 

For  example,  Figure  504  shows  that  coffee  is  not  grown  within 
our  states,  although  it  is  daily  consumed  in  almost  every  household. 


Brazil 


1,600,000,000 
Lbi. 


Fig.  504. 
Approximate  distribution  of  coffee. 

Notice,  however,  that  it  is  produced  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands  (Fig.  504).  To  what  climate  and  countries  is  it  con- 
fined ?  State  the  rank  of  the  principal  coffee-producing  sections  and 
compare  their  output  (Fig.  505). 

Note  the  heet  sugar  and  cane  sugar  areas  (Fig.  506).  What 
difference  do  you  detect  in  the  situation  of  the  countries  producing 
these   two   kinds   of   sugar?     Also   note  the  rank   of   the   leading 

countries  which  manufacture 
cane  sugar  (Fig.  507).  Our  own 
states  produce  far  less  sugar  each 
year  than  we  consume.  Of  what 
importance,  therefore,  in  this  re- 
spect is  our  newly  established 
relation  to  Cuba  and  the  Hawai- 
ian and  Philippine  Islands? 

We  depend  wholly  on  foreign 
nations  for  raw  silk.  Name  the 
chief  silk-producing  countries 
(Fig.  508).  What  have  you  learned  about  the  production  of  silk? 
Our  tea  also  comes  almost  entirely  from  abroad,  mainly  from  eastern 
and  southern  Asia.  From  what  region  mainly  ?  And  while  much 
rice  is  produced  in  our  Southern  States  (Fig.  509),  a  large  amount 
has  to  be  imported.  From  what  sources  must  it  be  obtained  ?  We 
have,  therefore,  a  very  extensive  trade  in  imports  as  well  as  in  exports. 


Vervexaeta  95,886,440 

JaifO.   92,109,467 


(kuuemaJUi  69,268.773 

Haiti    50,984,304 


Fig.  505. 

Exports  from  the  five  leading  coffee-produc- 
ing sections,  1906. 


624 


COMPARISON    OF    COUNTRIES 


Exports  and  Imports.  —  Our  ten  leading  exports,  named  in  order 
of  value,  together  with  the  principal  countries  to  which  the  goods 
are  sent,  are  as  follows:  — 


Artldei  Tahie  in  190T 

1.  Gotton  (mainly  unmanufactured)       $513,582,209 

2.  Breadstuffs  (wheat,  com,  flour,  etc.)   168,322,502 


3.  Meat  and  dairy  products 

4.  Iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  of 

5.  Mineral  oils 

6.  Copper  (mainly  manufactures  of) 

7.  Wood,  and  manufactures  of 


8.  Animals  (mainly  cattle) 

9.  Tobacco 

10.  Leather,  and  manufactures  of 
Total  value  of  exports 


102,392,508 

181,530,871 

84,855,715 

96,600,698 

83,349,575 

41,203,080 
39,113,011 


45,476,969 
$1,988,989,337 


Prlnolpal  Oonntrlei  to  which  th«7 
are  sent 

Gt.    Britain,     Germany,     France, 

Japan. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Netherlands, 

Belgium. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Bel- 
gium. 
Gt.    Britain,    Canada,     Germany, 

Mexico. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Netherlands, 

Belgium. 
Gt.  Britain,  Netherlands,  France, 

Germany. 
Gt.    Britain,    Canada,     Germany, 

W.  Indies. 
Gt.  Britain. 
Gt.     Britain,      Germany,      Italy, 

France. 
Gt.  Britain,  Australasia,  Canada. 


The  ten  leading  imports,  on  the  other  hand,  are  as  follows:  — 


Articles  Value  In  1907 

1.  Sugar  and  molasses  $92,806,253 

2.  Silk,  and  manufactures  of  110,065,150 

3.  Hides  and  skins  83,206,545 

4.  Fiber,  and  manufactures  of  109,661,816 

5.  Chemicals,  drugs,  etc.  82,997,914 

6.  Coffee  78,231,902 

7.  Cotton  (mainly  manufactures  of)  93,635,265 

8.  Wool,  and  manufactures  of  63,855,626 

9.  Rubber  and  rubber  goods  70,206,418 
10.  Fruits  and  nuts  35,807,527 

Total  value  of  imports  $1,591,878,298 


Principal  Countries  from  which  thej 
come 

E.  Indies,  Hawaiian  Isds.,  Cuba, 

Germany  (beet  sugar) . 
Japan,  France,  China,  Italy. 
E.  Indies,  S.  America,  Gt.  Britain, 

France. 
Mexico,  Philippines,  E.  Indies. 
Germany,  E.  Indies,  Gt.  Britain. 
Brazil,  Cent.  America,  E.  Indies, 

Mexico. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Switzerland, 

France. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  France,  8. 

America. 
Brazil,  Gt.  Britain. 
Italy,  Cent.  America,  W.  Indies. 


In  Figure  510  trace  the  main  steamship  lines  of  the  world  by 
which  these  goods  are  carried.  Compare  the  value  and  nature  of 
our  exports  and  imports.     How  is  the  result  encouraging  ? 

More  than  one-third  of  all  our  foreign  trade  is  with  the  British 
Isles,  the  ten  leading  countries  ranking  as  follows:  — 

The  Ten  Leading  Countries  with  which  we  Trade 


Oonntrles 


1.  British  Isles 


Value  In  190T  Kinds  of  Goods 

Exp.  0607,783,256      Provisions,  breadstuffs,  raw  cotton. 

246,112,047      Cotton    go(Jds>  raw  wmJl,    tin»  jewelry,  rubber 


TExp.  J 


Fia.  506. 
Distribution  of  sugar  cane  and  beet  sugar. 


Cuba 


Java 


VhitedSts.^^ail       ^^^  ^^ 


890,000 


383,171 


TQ.OOO 


Fig.  507. 
The  five  countries  producing  most  cane  sugar,  1906-7. 


CMn,& 


»UU€ir^O4M0 


Fig.  508. 
The  five  leading  raw-silk-producing  countries,  1899. 


Fig.  609. 
Approximate  distribution  of  rice. 


COMPARISON    OF    COUNTRIES 


525 


Countries 

2.  Germany 

3.  France 

4.  Canada 

5.  Netherlands 

6.  West  Indies 

7.  East  Indies 

8.  Brazil 

9.  Mexico 
10.  Japan 


V:\lue  in  1907 


(Exp. 
{  Imp. 
(  Total 
(  Exp. 

Imp. 
(  Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 
I  Exp. 
<  Imp. 
(  Total 
(Exp. 

Imp. 
(  Total 
(  Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 


Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 


$256,6o3,060 

161,544,552 

418,197,612 

23.384  989 

1.125.915 

24,510,934 

97,807 

175.862 

273,6(J9 

164.450,319 
32.454,616 

13(),904,935 
68.397,077 

115,117.064 

183,514,141 
11.394,628 
95.220.808 

106.615,436 
18.697,517 
97,881,158 

116,578,705 
66.248.098 
57.233,416 

123,481,514 
38  770,060 
68.910,594 

107,680,654 


Kinds  of  Goods 

Raw  cotton,  breadstuffs.  provisions. 

Beet  sugar,  chemicals  and  drugs,  cotton  goods, 

silk  goods. 
Raw  cotton,  copper  mineral  oil. 
Silk  goods,  hides,  jewelry,  cotton  goods. 

Coal,  breadstuffs,  cotton  and  manufactures  of. 
Lumber,  coal,  hides. 

Breadstuffs,  provisions,  copper,  mineral  oil. 
Jewelry,  tin. 

Provisions,  breadstuffs,  animals. 
Sugar,  fruits,  cocoa. 

]Mineral  oil.  cotton  goods. 
Sugar,  hides,  tin. 

Breadstuffs,  mineral  oil,  provisions. 
Coffee,  rubber,  sugar. 

Coal,  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel  manufactures. 
Sisal  grass,  coffee,  lead,  hides. 

ISIanufactured  cotton,  mineral  oil,  iron  and  steel 

manufactures. 
Silk,  tea. 


Name  some  of  the  countries  which  probably  have  the  same  exports  as 
the  United  States,  and  which  are,  therefore,  likely  to  be  active  rivals  to 
us  in  supplying  foreign  markets. 

Owing  to  our  trade  relations  with  the  United  Kingdom,  what  hard- 
ships would  probably  be  brought  upon  the  British  if  they  entered  upon  a 
war  with  us?  How  might  the  Germans  suffer  if  they  were  at  war  with 
us  ?  How  might  the  French  suffer  ?  On  the  other  hand,  what  hardships 
would  come  to  us  in  each  case  ?  Are  we  more  or  less  independent  than 
these  countries  in  case  of  war  ?     Why  ? 

Reasons  for  the  Rank  of  the  United  States.  —  The  preceding  fig- 
ures and  diagrams  show  that  several  European  countries  are  the 
chief  competitors  with  the  United  States  in  the  ivorhVs  trade.  Give 
examples.  But  so  far  as  the  future  is  concerned,  several  important 
facts  are  in  our  favor.  In  the  first  place,  we  are  still  in  our  youth 
as  a  people,  while  some  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe  have  per- 
haps already  reached  the  zenith  of  their  power.  In  the  second  place, 
the  territory  of  most  of  those  countries  is  densely  populated,  as 
shown  in  Figure  482.  Note  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square 
mile  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  France.  When  we  contrast  v/ith 
these  figures  our  average  of  only  twenty-eight  persons  per  square 
mile,  the  possibility  of  our  future  growth  seems  almost  without  limit. 
Immense  tracts  of  land,  which  in  Europe  would  be  carefully  tilled. 


526  COMPARISON    OF    COUNTRIES 

are  in  our  country  not  even  cleared  for  pasture;  and  in  no  large 
section  of  the  United  States  do  we  even  approach  the  careful  hand 
tillage  of  Belgium  and  some  other  European  countries. 

Another  point  in  our  favor  is  the  varied  climate  and  physiog- 
raphy of  our  vast  country,  encouraging  varied  products.  Almost 
all  farm  products  can  be  easily  raised,  and  our  wonderful  mineral 
resources  are  apparently  not  equalled  on  any  continent.  It  will 
therefore  be  seen  that  our  natural  resources,  which  have  made 
present  development  possible,  promise  equally  well  for  the  future. 

Our  people  are  another  element  to  be  considered  in  reckoning 
past  success  and  future  promise.  They  have  consisted,  in  large  part, 
of  those  who  had  energy  and  ambition  enough  to  migrate  to  a  new 
land  in  the  hope  of  bettering  their  condition.  In  their  new  home 
the  possibilities  have  been  so  great  that  they  have  been  encouraged 
to  work  and  to  improve  themselves.  As  the  environment  of  the 
desert  has  given  rise  to  the  nomad,  and  the  ease  of  life  in  the  tropi- 
cal forest  to  the  degenerate  savage,  so  the  environment  in  the  United 
States  has  given  rise  to  a  race  noted  for  its  energy  and  enterprise. 
This  race  has  been  possible,  however,  largely  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  it  comes  from  a  mixture  of  peoples  already  gifted.  That  re- 
sources alone  will  not  make  an  energetic  people  and  a  great  nation 
is  well  illustrated  in  China,  where  nature  favors,  but  racial  charac- 
teristics and  customs  are  opposed  to,  development. 

Nor  would  the  statement  of  reasons  for  the  present  position  of 
the  United  States  and  her  future  prospects  be  complete  if  left  here. 
There  are  two  other  elements  of  high  importance ;  namely,  educa- 
tion and  government.  Where  people  are  hampered  by  ignorance, 
petty  restrictions,  and  heavy  taxes,  unnecessarily  imposed  upon  them 
by  their  rulers,  they  have  little  opportunity  for  progress.  It  is  those 
European  countries  in  which  there  are  the  best  opportunities  for 
education  and  the  greatest  freedom,  that  have  made  tlie  greatest 
progress.  And  no  nation  in  the  world  pays  more  attention  to  edu- 
cation, or  guarantees  its  people  a  more  active  part  in  their  entire 
government,  than  the  United  States. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


a,  as  in  fat;  a,  as  mfate  ;  a,  as  in /ar;  ,a,  as  in  fall;  d,  as  in  last;  U,  as  in  care; 
d,  as  in  senate;  e,  as  in  pen;  e,  as  in  mete  ;  e,  as  in  her;  e,  as  in  event;  i,  as  in  pin; 
I,  as  in  pine ;  o,  as  in  wo^ ;  o,  as  in  noie ;  o,  as  in  /or ;  u,  as  in  «m6  ;  w,  as  in  mw^e  ; 
a,  as  in  /itW;  w,  as  in  pwW;  do,  as  in  food;  ob,  as  in  foot;  oi,  as  in  oil;  oWj  as  in 
coio;  gr,  as  in  ^e«;  y,  as  in  gem;  c,  as  in  cat;  g,  as  in  cent;  n,  as  in  &a?iA;;  §,  as  in  wise. 

A,  e,  i,  o,  and  u  marked  thus :  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  indicate  a  sound  obscured  or  slurred. 

The  sign  '  tells  upon  which  syllable  the  accent  is  placed.  The  numbers  refer  to 
pages  in  the  book,  except  where  Fig.  is  before  them,  when  they  refer  to  figures  in  the 
book. 


Aachen  (a'-ken),  396,  402. 

Ab'-er-deen',  330,  342. 

Ab'-ys-sin'-i-a,  472,  495. 

Ab-ys-sin-i-an  Mountains,  483. 

A-ca-pul'-co  (pool),  212. 

A-con-ca'-gua  (gwa),  286. 

A-crop'-5-lis,  434,  Fig.  401. 

Ad'-e-laide,  507. 

Ad-i-ron'-dacks,  72. 

Ad-ri-at'-ic,  419,  422,  424,  428,  429. 

JEgean  (^-je'-an)  Sea,  428. 

Af-g^an-is-tan',  449. 

Af'-ri-ca,  343,  363,  398,  439,  442,  447,  452, 

460,  472-498. 
A-ga'-ve,  209. 
Agriculture,  57,  73,  101,   121,    157,  181, 

197,    208,    328,    347,    356,    366,     374, 

386,  395,  407,  412,  424,  452,  463,  484, 

490. 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (aks-la-sha-pel') ,  402. 
Al-a-ba'-ma,  67,  98,  101,  108,  109. 
A-las'-ka,  177-180,  266,  Figs.  F,  O,  T. 
Al'-ba-ny,  71,  82,  84,  86. 
Al-b5rt'-§,  192,  197. 
Albuquerque  (al-b5o-kar'-ki),  164. 
Al'-der-ney,  328. 

Aleutian  (ft-lii'-shi-g,n)  Islands,  178. 
Al-ex-an'^ri-§,  486. 
Al-g§'-ri-ft,  363,  479,  487,  488, 


Al-giers-'  (j6rz),  488. 

Al-ham'-bra,  368. 

Allegheny  (al'-e-ga-ni),  76,  82,  193. 

Alpaca,  290,  308. 

Alps,  318,  355,  393,  406,  412,  421,  Figs. 

V,  Y. 
Al-sace'  (sSs)  Lor-rSine',  392. 
Al-too'-na,  82. 
Al-va-ra'-do,  161. 
Am'-a-zon,  286,  288,  293,  294,  296,  296, 

306,  476. 
A-mir'  (mer),  449. 
Am'-ster-dam,  350,  Fig.  332. 
An'-des   (d^z),  286,  287,  288,  302,  806, 

306,  307,  Fig.  U.      * 
An-d6r'-ra,  355,  366. 
An-dros-cog'-gin,  62. 
Angles  (ang'-glz),  327- 
Anglo-Saxon  (ang'-glo-sak'HSgn),  327. 
Animals,  20-29,  289-290. 
Animals  of  North  America,  21-29. 
An-nap'-6-lis,  94. 
Ann  Ar'-bor,  140. 
Antarctic  (an-tSrk'-tik)  Circle,  44. 
Anthracite  coal,  4,  77,  819. 
An-til'-les  (lez),  214. 
Anti-trade  winds,  246. 
Ant'-werp,  353,  354,  368. 
Apia  (ft'-p6-ft),  186. 


627 


A28 


INDEX 


Ap-pa-la'-chi-an  Mountains,  5,  67,  76,  98. 

Ap-p^la'-chi-g,n  Plateau,  70. 

Ap'-pen-nines  (ninz),  412,  414,  416. 

^-ra'-bi-a,  442,  447-448. 

Ar'-^l  Sea,  383. 

Ar'-gr-rat,  444. 

Archangel  (ftrk-an'-gel),  382. 

Ar-cAi-pel'-9^g5,  186,  434. 

Arc'-tic  Circle,  44,  439,  441. 

Arc'-tic  Ocean,  385. 

A-re-qui'-pa  (ri-k6),  308. 

Ar-gen-ti'-na  (t6),  286,  296-299,301,  368. 

Ar-i-zO'-n^,  149,  150,  151,  155,  163,  164. 

Ar'-k^n-sas  (sft),  100,  110. 

Ar-m6'-ni-ans,  445. 

As-^en'-sion  (shun)  Island,  498. 

Ashe'-ville,  100. 

Ash'-land,  133. 

Asia  (a'-shi-a),  439-470,  472,  484,  485. 

Asia  Minor,  444,  452. 

Asphaltum,  311. 

As-sin-i-boi'-§,,  197. 

As-t5'-ri-a,  172. 

Asuncion  (a-so6n-s^-5n'),  300. 

A-ta-ca'-ma  Desert,  289. 

Ath'-eng,  382,  434. 

At-lan'-t^,  101,  109,  110,  113. 

At-lan'-tic  Ocean,  18,  98,  177,  193,  217, 

251,  263,  265,  266,  267,  272,  306,  309. 
AtMas  Mountains,  472,  480,  487. 
Auburn  (a'-btim).  Me.,  60. 
Auburn  (ft'-bftrn),  N.Y.,  75,  82. 
Awck'-Iand,  509. 
AM-gus'-t§,,  Ga.,  110. 
Ait-gus'-ta,  Me.,  52,  60. 
Aws'-tin,  114. 

Australasia  (as'-tr9,l-a'-shi-a),  500-509. 
Aws-traMi-^,  343,  358,  460,  478,  500-507. 
Aws'-tri-a,  391,  402,  421-426. 
At<s'-tri-a  Hun'-g^ry,  421-426. 
A-zores'  (z5rz)  Islands,  870. 
Az'-tecs,  31,  32,  207,  208. 

Bab'-y-lgn,  446. 
Bag-dad',  447. 
B^hft'-mae,  216. 
Bahia  (ba-e'-ft),  296. 
Bal  -kal,  450. 
Ba-ku'  (kflS),  886. 
Balearic  Isles,  369. 


Bal-kan'  Mountains,  480. 

Bai-kan'  Peninsula,  428-484. 

Bal-l^rat',  507. 

Bal'-tic  Sea,  319,  374,  380,  382,  394,  421. 

Bftl'-ti-m5re,  72,  75,  82. 

Ba-lu-chis-tan'  (loo),  451,  456. 

Bananas,  99,  182,  188,  213,  215,  301,  490, 

512,  Fig.  202. 
Bang-kok',  459. 
Ban'-g6r,  52,  72. 
Bar'-ba-ry  States,  479,  487-488. 
Bar-9e-l5'-na,  369. 
Bar  Har'-bor,  64,  Fig.  56. 
Barley,  126^^  157,  198. 
Bar'-men,  402. 
Barrens,  21. 
Ba'gel,  408. 
Ba-ta'-vi-a,  511. 
Bath,  Me. ,  52. 
Ba-va'-ri-a,  402. 
Bay  City,  131. 
Beet  sugar,  161,  397,  425. 
Bel'-fast  (or  fast),  836,  342. 
Bel'-gi-um,  318,  348,  350-354,  396,  49T. 
Bel-grade',  430. 
Belize  (bel-ez'),  213. 
Belt  of  Calms,  247,  248,  441,  Figs.  247, 

249. 
Ben-a'-re§,  458. 
Ben'-di-go,  507. 
Ben  Nev'-is,  327. 
Ber'-berg,  479,  487. 
Berg'-en,  377. 
Be'-ring  Sea,  178. 
B6'-ring  Straits,  178,  439. 
Berkeley  (bSrk'-le),  170,  Fig.  126  a. 
Berk'-shire  Hills,  49,  64. 
Bgr'-lin,  399^00,  403,  426. 
Ber-mu'-da§,  217. 
Bgrnc,  409. 

BethMe-hem,  445,  Fig.  415. 
Bet-ter-ra'-via,  161. 
Bey  (ba),  487. 
Bhutan  (bhoo-tan'),  457. 
Bid'-de-fgrd,  60. 
Bil'-ling§,  161,  163,  Fig.  147. 
Bing'-^am-tgn,  82. 
Bir'-ming-ham  (bSr),  Ala.,  108. 
Bir'-ming-ham  (urn),  Eng.,  838,  336. 
Bituminous  coal,  4,  76,  182,  818. 


INDEX 


529 


Black  Race,  276,  478. 

Black  Sea,  382,  388,  426,  481,  444,  451. 

Blajst  furnace,  81,  Figs.  72,  78. 

Blizzards,  125. 

Bluefields,  214. 

Boerg,  488,  489. 

BO-gQ-ta',  304. 

Bok-Aa'-ra,  449. 

BQ-Uv'-i-a,  291,  302,  308-809. 

Bom-bay',  457,  458. 

Boom'-e-rang,  503,  Fig.  471. 

Bor-deaux'  (do),  362. 

Bor'ne-o,  510. 

Bo§'-ni-a,  426,  429. 

Bos'-p6-rus,  429,  431. 

B6s'-ton,  55,  60,  8^-63,  201. 

Brad'-fgrd,  333,  336. 

Bra^'-min-igm,  281. 

BraA-ma-pu'-tra  (poo),  451. 

Brazil',  287,  288,  291,  292-296. 

Brazilian  Highland,  287. 

Brem'-en,  390,  401. 

BresMau  (lou),  397,  399. 

Bricks,  83,  135. 

Bridge'-port,  62. 

Brindisi  (bren'-de-s6),  411. 

Bris'-tol,  336,  340. 

Brit'-ish  Af' -ri-ca,  488-493,  495. 

BritMsh  Co-lum'-bi-a,  192,  197,  199. 

Brit'ish  Em'pire,  333,  339,  342,  455. 

Brit'ish  Guiana  (g6-a'-na),  300. 

Brit'ish  Hon-du'-ras  (doo),  213. 

BritMsh  Isles    (il§),   320,   326-344,   373, 

374,  376,  377,  466. 
BritMsh  Straits  Settlements,  459,  460. 
Brock'-tQU,  61,  138. 
Brook'-lyn,  83,  87. 
Brun§'-wick,  Ga.,  101. 
Brus'-selg,  354. 
Bucharest  (bu-ka-rest'),  431. 
Bu'-d^-pest  (boo),  426. 
Buddhism  (boo'-dism) ,  281,  282,  459. 
Buenos  Aires  (b5'-nus  a'-riz),  298,  299. 
Buf'-f^l5,  78,  81,  84,  86,  134,  137. 
Bul-ga'-rl-a,  428,  429,  430. 
Bullfrog,  153. 
Bun'-des-rat^  (b55n),  891. 
Bftr'-ling-tgn,  82. 
Bar'-ma,  456. 
Batt«  (bat),  164,  166. 


Cad'-iz,  368. 

CaiV-*,  481,  483,  485,  486. 
Cal-cut'-ta,  457. 
Cal'-ga-ry,  197. 

Cal-i-fOr'-ni-a,  36,  147,  148,  149,  160, 167, 
160,  161,  169,  170,  171,  172,  Figs.  B, 
C,  N. 
California,  U.S.S.,  171. 
Cal-la'-o,  307,  311. 
Cal'-ti-met,  134. 
Cam'-bridge,  Eng.,  340. 
Cam'-bridge,  Mass.,  63. 
Cam'-den,  82,  92,  93.    * 
Cam'-pos,  288. 
Can'-a-da,  192-202,  343. 
Canals,  120,  304. 
Ca-na'-ry  Islands,  369,  498. 
Can'-5gr,  Tropic  of,  242,  271,  461. 
Canning  fruit,  75,  160. 
Can-ta'-bri-an  Mountains,  365,  867. 
Can'-ton,  461,  465. 
Caoutchouc  (koo'-chuk),  294. 
Cape  Breton  (bret'-yn)  Island,  199. 
Cape  Col'-o-ny,  488,  489,  491,  492. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  478,  497. 
Cape  Town,  485,  492. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  370,  498. 

Cap'-ri-corn,  Tropic  of,  242,  287. 

Ca-ra'-cas,  301,  302. 

Caravan,  480,  481. 

Car'-diff,  340. 

Car-ib-be'-an  Sea,  207,  214. 

Car-pa'-thi-an  Mountains,  421. 

Cas-cade'  Ranges,  149. 

Cas'-pi-an  Sea,   332,  383,  386,  448,  450, 
451. 

Cas'-sel-tgn,  126. 

Cats'-killg,  73. 

Cattle  ranching,  126,  161,  197,  208,  297. 

Cfti^ca'-sian  (shun)  race,  277,  278. 

Caw'-ca-sus,  318,  383,  386. 

Cave  dwellings.  Fig.  149. 

Caverns,  123. 

Cayuga  (ka-yoo'-ga)  Lake,  89. 

gel'-e-be§,  510. 

Qen'-tr^l  A-mei'-i-o^,  212-214. 

gen'-tr^l  States,  119-144. 

Century  plant,  209. 

gey-Ion',  451,  458. 

Cham-plain'  (sham)  Lake,  01. 


680 


INDEX 


Channel  Islands,  328. 

Charle§'-tQn,  S.C.,  101,  104,  108. 

Charlotte  (sharMot),  110. 

-Charlottetown,  198. 

Chat-ta-noo'-ga,  108,  109,  110. 

Chautauqua  (sha-ta'-kwa)  Grape  Belt,  75. 

Chel'^ea  (si),  63. 

Chem'-nitz  (nits),  397. 

Ches'-a-peake  Bay,  16,  72. 

Ches'-tgr,  92. 

Cheyenne  (shi-en'),  159. 

Chi-ca'-g5  (she),  84,  106,  111,  129,  131, 

137-139,  140,  141. 
Chile  (chilM),  253,  288,  289,  308,  309-311. 
Chim-bo-ra'-zo,  305. 
Chi'-na,  187,  359,  441,  452,  460-466. 
Chi-nese'  (nez)  Empire,  460-466. 
Chino  (che'-no),  161. 
Chris-ti-a'-ni-a,  377. 
Christian  Religion,  281. 
Cin-c^o'-na  (chin),  307. 
gin-5in-na'-ti,  126,  135,  143. 
Circle  City,  180. 
Cities,  occupations  of,  226-231. 
Clays,  83-135. 
Cleve'-land,  84,  134,  140. 
Cliff  dwellings,  Fig.  149. 
Climate,  49,  71,  99,  119,  150,  177,  180, 

184,  187,  193,  206,  213,  287,  292,  296. 
Clyde,  Fig.  319. 
Coal,  2,  76,  108,  132,  155,  189,  199,  225, 

296,  Figs.  220,  221. 
Coal  Period,  2,  319. 
Coastal  Plains,  67,  98. 
Coastal  Ranges,  149. 
Co'-coa,  189,  213,  296,  300,  301,  303,  304, 

305. 
Cocoanuts,  99, 106, 182, 188, 189,  216,  459. 
Cod,  56,  178,  195. 
Coffee,  181,  184,  189,  209,  213,  295,  296, 

298,  300,  301,  303,  304,  305,  306,  308, 

447,  458,  490,  497,  511,  512,  Figs.  200, 

203. 
Cold  Pole,  441. 

Colleges,  63,  89,  93,  114,  139,  140,  170. 
C6-10grne',  392,  397,  401,  402. 
Co-Ion',  214. 

C5-lom'-bi-a  (16m),  302,  303,  304-305. 
Col-9-ra'-d5,  149,  154,  165,  159,  169,  208, 

390,  Fig.  L. 


Col-Q-ra'-dO  Can'-yon,  166,  Fig.  L. 

Col-Q-ra'-dO  Plateau,  149,  162. 

Col-o-ra'-do  Springs,  169. 

Col-os-se'-um,  417,  Fig.  386. 

C5-lum'-bi-a,  District  of,  94. 

Co-lum'-bi-a,  S.C,  110. 

C5-lum'-bi-a  Plateau,  149. 

Co-lum'-bus,  Ga.,  110. 

Columbus,  Ohio,  143. 

Commerce,  229, 230,  343, 362, 387, 401, 426. 

Commons,  House  of,  344. 

Comstock  Lode,  153. 

Concord  (kpng'-kord),  N.H.,  54. 

Con-nect'-i-cut,  62. 

Con-nectM-cut  River,  62. 

Con-stan-ti-no'-ple,  388,  426,  431,  444. 

Continental  climate,  441. 

Co-pen-ha'-gen,  380. 

Copper,  134,^135,  152,  154,  155,  181. 

Coral  islands,  99,  216. 

Coral  reefs,  501,  510. 

Cor'-cor-an,  161. 

Cor-dil-ler'-as  (ya'-rag),  5. 

Cor'-do-ba,  299. 

Corn,  29,  31,  107,  124-126,  198,  208. 

Cos'-sacks,  386,  442. 

Cos'-ta  Ri'-ca  (re),  213. 

Co-to-pax'-i,  305. 

Cotton,  102-104,  114,  209,  213,  214,  223, 

300,  306,  307,  367,  386,  413,  448,  459, 

484,  488,  Figs.  93,  94,  95. 
Cotton  gin,  110. 

Cotton  manufacturing,  60,  109,  110. 
Coun'-5il  Bluffs,  142. 
Country,  occupations  of,  222-226. 
Crete,  434. 
Crip'-ple  Creek,  154. 
Cu'-ba,  105,  180-184. 
Cuzco  (c6os'-co),  308. 
Cyclonic  storms,  257-259,  321. 
Czar  (zar),  385. 

Dairying,  73-74,  379,  505. 

Dal'-las,  114. 

Da-mas'-cus,  446. 

Dan'-ube,  402,  403,  421,  426, 428,  429, 480 

Dan'-ville,  74. 

Dar-da-nelle§',  429. 

Dar'-ling  River,  600. 

Daw'-S9n  City,  180. 


INDEX 


681 


Dead  Sea,  445. 

Del-a-g5'-a  Bay,  493. 

Del'-a-ware,  76,  82,  92. 

Del'-Q,-ware  Bay,  16. 

Delta,  483,  484. 

Dea'-mark,  374,  375,  379-381. 

Den'-vgr,  157,  169. 

Dependencies  of  United  States,  177-190. 

Deserts,  441,  477,  480-481. 

De-troit',  84,  134,  140. 

Diamonds,  296,  491,492. 

Dikes,  349. 

District  of  Co-lum'-bi-a,  94. 

Douro  (doo'-ro),  370. 

Do'-ver,  N.H.,  61. 

Dre§'-den,  397,  400,  401,  Fig.  369. 

Drift,  14. 

DubMin,  342. 

Duluth  (du-l6oth0,  84,  126,  131,  133,  136, 

200. 
Duma,  385. 
Dun-dee',  342. 
Dlir'-ban,  493. 
Dur^'-am,  102,  110. 
Dutch,  347,  348,  350,  479,  488,  489. 
Dutch  Guiana  (ge-a'-na),  300,  350. 

Earthquakes,  304,  370,  440,  466. 

Earth,  daily  motion  of,  239. 

Earth,  yearly  motion  of,  240. 

East  In'-die§,  350,  509-511. 

Ebro  (e'-bro),  365. 

Ecuador  (ek'-wa-dor) ,  302,  305-306. 

Eddies  in  ocean,  263,  264. 

Edinburgh  (ed'-n-bur-o) ,  341,  342,  383. 

E'-gypt,  333,  445,  481-486. 

E-gyp'-tian   (shun)    Su-dan'   (soo),  479, 

481,  495. 
EP-be,  399,  401,  426. 
El'-ber-feld,  402. 
El-bruz'  (brooz),  383. 
Elevators,  141. 
E-liz'-a-beth,  83. 
El-ml'-ra,  82. 
El  Pa'-s5,  114. 

Eng'-land  (ing),  327,  328,  333,  335,  337. 
Eng'-lish  (ing),  34-36,  489. 
E'-qui-nox,  242. 
E'-rie  Canal,  84-85,  194. 
E'-rie,  Lake,  75,  84. 


E'-rie,  Pa.,  82. 
Eritrea  (^-rit'-r^-^),  496. 
Erzgebirge  (erts'-ge-b6r-ge),  393. 
Es'-ki-m5§,  30,  202,  Figs.  189,  191, 192,  F. 
Es'-sen,  402. 
E-thi-6'-pi-an§,  276. 
Euphrates  (u-fra'-t6z),  443,  445,  446. 
Eurasia  (ti-ra'-shi-a),  439. 
Europe  (u'-rap),  317-435. 
Ev'-an§-ville,  144. 
Ev'-gr-est,  Mt.,  440. 

Exports  of  United  States,  329,  524-528, 
329. 

Fa/k'-land  Islands,  311. 

Fall  line,  67,  98. 

Fall  River,  61,  62. 

Fa'-r5e  Islands,  380. 

Farming  (see  Agriculture). 

Fear,  Cape,  99. 

Fe'-tish,  278,  Fig.  278. 

Fez,  488. 

Fiji  (fe'-je),  512,  Fig.  480. 

Fin'-land,  317,  389. 

Fishing,  56,  72, 172, 178, 195,  360,  376,  380, 

413,  433,  463,  469. 
Fitch'-burg,  62. 
Fiume  (fe'-oo-ma),  426. 
Fjords  (fyordg),  377,  Fig.  356. 
Flax,  336. 
Flor'-en^e,  418. 
Flor'-i-da,  4,  99,  100,  106,  107. 
Flour-mills,  141,  388. 
Forests,  tropical,  294. 
For-mo'-sa,  466. 
Fort  Worth,  114. 
Fo'-rum,  417. 

France,  215,  355-363,  390,  398,  424. 
Frank'-fort,  402. 

French,  33,  34,  35,  36,  113,  193,  199. 
French  Guiana  (ge-a'-na),  300. 
French  In'-do  Chi'-na,  459. 
Fruits,  74-75,  106,  121,  157,  160,  161, 182, 

185,  198,  199,  209,  294,  296,  298,  304, 

433,  447,  505. 
Fuchau  (foo'-chou),  464. 
Fur  seals,  178,  179. 

Ga-lap'-3^g5s  Islands,  311. 
Gal'-i-Iee,  Sea  of,  445,  44«. 


532 


INDEX 


Gal'-ves-tgn,  88,  114. 

Gan'-g6§,  461,  453,  454,  457,  458. 

Ga-ronne',  362. 

Ge-n6'-va,  408. 

Ge-ng'-v^  Lake,  362,  408. 

Gen'-9-a,  407,  415,  418. 

Ge6r'-gi-a,  101,  107,  109, 110. 

G€r'-man  Af'-ri-ca,  493. 

G5r'-man  Empire,  390-403,  411. 

Ggr'-ma-ny,  318,  320,  348,  349,  361,  362, 

373,390-403. 
Gey'-ggrg  (gl),  165. 
Gi-bral'-tar,  368. 

Glacial  Period,  8, 11,  12-15,  319,  332. 
Gla'-cier  (shier),  13,  332,  393. 
Glas'-g5MJ,  333,  334,  336,  341. 
Gloucester  (glos'-t6r),  54,  56,  Fig.  53. 
Gold,  108,  147,  148,  152,   153,  154,  179, 

180,  199,  296,  303,  304,  306,  308,  491, 

503,  506,  Figs.  224,  226. 
Goldfield,  153. 
GotA'-gn-bflrg,  379. 
Gra-na'-da,  368. 
Grand  Canal,  419. 
Grand  Rapids,  131. 
Granite,  53,  108,  132. 
Grapes,  75, 123, 161, 198,298,356,  360, 467, 

413,  424,  433,  444,  445,  487,  490,  Fig.  A. 
Gravitation,  241,  242. 
Grazing,  107,  327,  335,  366,  386,  395,  490, 

505,  509. 
Great  Barrier  Reef,  501. 
Great  Basin,  149,  151. 
Great  Britain  (brit'-n),  192,  215,  326-344, 

390,  393,  452,  455,  456. 
Great  Lakes,  14,  70,  119,  194. 
Great  Plains,  126,  149. 
Great  Salt  Lake,  150. 
Great  Wall,  China,  461,  Fig.  432. 
Greece,  429,  432-434. 
Greeks,  433,  434. 
Greeley,  159. 
Green'-l^nd,  13,  203,  880. 
Green  Mountains,  50,  64. 
Green'-ville,  110. 
Green'-irich,  340. 
Grimg'-by,  330. 

Guadalquivir  (gvyra-dal-k^v6r'),  365,  367. 
Guadeloupe  (ga'-da-lo5p'),  216. 
Guam  (gv^am),  187. 


GMa-te-ma'-la,  213. 

Guayaquil  (gwi-a-k6l'),  306. 

Gw5rn'-sey,  328. 

Guiana  (ge-a'-na),  300. 

Guiana  Highlands,  286,  300. 

Guinea  (ginM),  369,  497. 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  9,  214. 

Gulf  Stream,  50,  99,  264-265,  267,  26S. 

Guth'-rie,  115. 

Hagwe,  The,  350. 

Hai'-ti,  180,  207,  216. 

Halibut,  56,  178. 

HaP-i-fax,  195,  202. 

Ham'-burg,  390,  398,  399,  401. 

HamMl-ton,  Bermuda,  217. 

HamMl-ton,  Cal.,  161. 

HamMl-ton  Bay,  172. 

Ham'-mer-fest,  Fig.  358. 

Han-kau'  (kou),  465. 

Har'-ris-biirg,  82,  92. 

Hart'-ford,  62. 

Hat'-tgr-as,  Cape,  99. 

Ha-van'-a,  181,  182,  Fig.  168. 

Ha'-ver-Tim,  61,  138,  Fig.  G. 

Havre  (av'r),  358,362. 

Hawaiian  (ha-vi^a'-yan)  Islands,  105^  i<4-. 

186. 
Heat  Equator,  247,  Figs.  255,  256. 
Heathens,  278,  281. 
H6'-bron,  445. 
Hec'-la,  Mt.,  381. 
HeF-e-na,  154. 
Hel'-las,  432. 
Hel'-sing-f6rs,  389. 
Hemp,  189. 
Hgr-cu-la'-ne-um,  415. 
Herzegovina  (hert^se-go-ve'-na) ,  42tf,  429. 
Hilo  (he'-lo),  185. 
Him-a'-la-ya,  440,  451 ,  453,  456. 
Hin'-dus  (doo§),  455. 
Ho-ang'-ho,  461. 
Ho'-bo-ken,  82,  83,  87. 
Hogs,  107,  121,  124,  138,  139,  430. 
Hol'-land,  319,  346-850,  382,  898. 
Holy  Land,  446. 
Hol'-yoke,  53. 
Hon-du'-ras  (doo),  213. 
Hong'-kong,  465. 
HO-nO-lu'-lu  (lo6-l65),  IW. 


INDEX 


58S 


Horse  Latitudes,  247,  248,  287,  412. 

Horses,  107,  121,  122. 

HoOs'-tgn,  114. 

HS'-vfts,  498. 

Hud'-sgn  Bay,  199. 

Hud'-S9n  River,  71,  83,  84,  86,  87. 

Hull,  330,  336,  340. 

Huu'-ga-ry,  424,  429. 

Hu'-rQn,  Lake,  137. 

Iceberg,  13,  204. 

TceM^nd,  378,  381. 

I'-da-he,  149,  165. 

Il-li-nois',  76, 119,  129, 137. 

Immigrants,  37. 

Imports  of  United  States,  524-525. 

Incas  (ing'-kas),  291,  306,  307,  308. 

In'-di-a,  4,  333,  343,  447,  451^58,  478. 

In-di-an'-a,  76,  119,  125,  130,  144. 

In'-di-an  Ocean,  472. 

In-di-an-ap'-o-lis,  88,  144. 

In'-di-^ns,    American,    30-32,    115,   277, 

278,  291,  Fig.  D. 
Indian  Territory,  115. 
In'-do-Chi'-n^,  363,  458-460. 
In'-dus,  451,  458. 
I'-5-M?a,  129,  135,  142. 
Iquique  (e-ke'-ka),  310. 
Iron  manufacturing,  81,  82,  108,  109,  333, 

397,  Figs.  72,  73. 
Iron  ore,  80,  81,  108,  109,  181, 199,  Figs. 

222,  223. 
Irawadi  (^-ra-wa'-di),  456. 
Ireland   (i'-6r-land) ,   326,   327, 

337,  342. 
Ir-kutsk'  (kootsk),  451. 
Irrigation,  157,  158,  159,  208. 
Ish'-pem-ing,  133. 
I'-s5-th5rm§,  271,  272. 
Italian  Somaliland,  476. 
It'-a-ly,  402,  411-419,  424. 
Ith'-g^ca,  78,  89. 

Jack'-son-ville,  100,  101,  108. 

J^mai'-ca,  180,  215. 

Ja-pan^  266,  389,  438,  450,  466-470. 

Jap-a-n6§e'  Current,  266. 

Ja'-va,  360,  510,  511. 

Jef'-fgr-sgn  City,  142. 

J5r'-§ey  City,  82,  83,  87. 


JSr'-gey  Islands,  828. 

Je-ru'-S3,-lem  (roo),  446. 

Jews,  281,  446. 

Jin-rik'-i-sh^,  Fig.  440. 

Jo-han'-nes-bftrg  (y5),  491. 

Jop'-lin,  135. 

Jop'-pa,  446. 

Jor'-dan,  445. 

Juan  Fernandez   (hoo-an'  fSr-nan'-deth)', 

311. 
Juneau  (joo-no'),  179. 
Jungles,  453. 

Jura  (joo'-ra)  Mountains,  405. 
Jut'-land,  375. 

Ka'-bul,  449. 

Ka-na'kas,  Figs.  273,  FF. 

Kan'-gas,  125,  129,  142. 

Kansas  City,  129,  142. 

Ka-tah'-din,  50,  53,  Fig.  64. 

Ken-ne-bec',  52. 

Ken-tuck'-y,  107,  123,  143. 

Key  West,  110. 

Khedive  (ke-d6v'),  485,  486. 

Khiva  (ke'-va),  449. 

Kil-i-man'-ja-ro,  472. 

Kil-lar'-ney  Lakes,  Fig.  320. 

Kim'-ber-ley,  491,  493,  Fig.  462. 

King'-ston,  Jamaica,  215. 

Ki-o'-to  (ke),  470. 

Klou'-dike,  179,  199. 

Knox'-ville  (nox),  109. 

Kon'-go  River,  363,  472,  476,  493,  Fig.  463. 

Kon'-g5  State,  354,  497. 

Konigsberg  (ke'-nigs-berg),  392. 

K5-re'-^,  466. 

Kre'-feld  (kra),  402. 

Kurile  (koo'-ril)  Islands,  466. 

Lab-ra-d6r',  16,  192,  267. 

Lab-r§-d6r'  Current,  50,  71,  196,  200,  265, 

266,  267. 
Lachine  (la-sh6n')  Rapids,  200. 
La-Cr6sse',  131. 
La-drones',  186. 
Lan'-cas-t5r,  75. 
La  Paz'  (path),  309. 
Lapland,  373. 
La  Pla'-ta,  299. 
LaiZ-^mie,  169. 


534 


INDEX 


Lj  Salle',  34. 

LatM-tude,  40-41. 

Law''-ren5e,  63. 

Lead,  185,  162,  154,  155,  211. 

Lead'-ville,  154. 

Leather  manufacturing,  61. 

Leeds,  333,  336. 

Leicester  (les'-tgr),  333. 

Leipzig  (lip'-tsig),  400. 

Leith  (leth),342. 

Lemons,  106,  157. 

Lena  River,  441. 

Leon  (la-5n0,  Fig.  201. 

Le'-5-pold-ville,  472,  493. 

Lesser  An-tilMe§,  215. 

Levee  (le-ve'  or  levM),  112. 

Lew'-is-ton,  60. 

Lex'-ing-ton,  123. 

Li-b6'-ri-a,  497. 

Lib'-y-^n  Desert,  479. 

Liechtenstein  (lek-ten-stin'),  426. 

Lifege  (li-azh'),  354.'^ 

Li'-ma  (le),  307,  Fig.  299. 

Limestone,  80,  81,  108,  123,  132. 

Limoges  (le-mozh'),  362. 

Lincoln  (ling'-kon),  142. 

Linen,  335,  336. 

Li§'-bon,  369,  370. 

Little  Rock,  110. 

Liv'-gr-pool,  336,  340. 

Lla'-ma,  290,  308,  Fig.  301. 

Lla'-n5,  288,  301. 

Lock'-pOrt,  85,  Fig.  61. 

LOdz,  389. 

Lof-O'-den  Islands,  376. 

Loire  (Iwar),  360,  361. 

London    (lun'-dun),   330,   336,   337-339, 

340. 
Lon'-gi-tude,  41-43. 
Lords,  House  of,  344. 
Los  Al-am-i'-t5s,  161. 
Los  Angeles    (an'-gel-es),  147,  151,  Fig. 

144,  153,  154. 
Louisiana  (loo-6-zi-an'-a),  104,  105,  110. 
LouisviUe  (loo'-is-vil),  120,  125,  143. 
Louren90  Marquez  (lo-ren'-so  mar'-kes), 

493. 
Louvre  (l65vr),  361. 
Low  Countries,  319. 
L0w'-«11,  61,  62. 


Lower  Guinea,  497. 

Low  Pressure  Areas,  256,  257. 

Lu-9erne',  Lake,  409,  Fig.  380. 

Luck'-now,  458. 

Lumbering,  50-53,  72,  100-101,  130-181, 

150-157,   Figs.  40,  92,   117,  118,  139, 

140,  143. 
Lux'-em-btirg,  390. 
Lu-zon'  (loo),  186,  189,  190. 
Lynch'-burg,  74. 
Lynn,  61,  138. 
Lyon  (li-gn'),  362. 

Mac-ken'-zie  River,  198. 

Mackerel,  57. 

Ma'con,  101,  110. 

Mad-^-gas'-car,  363,  498. 

Ma-dei'-ra  Islands,  370,  498. 

Ma-dras',  458. 

Ma-drid',  Columbia,  303. 

Ma-drid',  Spain,  367-368,  387. 

Ma-gel'-lan  Strait,  298. 

Ma-guey'  (gwa),  209. 

Magyars  (mod'yorz),  423. 

Main  River,  402. 

Maine,  50,  52,  53,  55,  60,  156. 

Mal'-a-ga,  369. 

Ma-lay'  Peninsula,  458-460. 

Ma-lays',  188,  458,  460,  509,  510. 

Mal'-den,  63. 

Mam '-moth  Cave,  123. 

Ma-na'-5s,  293. 

Man'-ches-t5r,  Eng.,  333,  336. 

Man'-ches-ter,  N.H.,  60,  62. 

Man'-da-lay,  456. 

Man-di-6'-ca,  294. 

Man-g5,  453. 

Man-hat'-tan  Island,  88. 

Ma-nil'-a,  186,  187,  189,  190,  511. 

Man-i-t5'-ba,  192,  197,  Fig.  198. 

Mankind,  276-278. 

Manufacturing,  59,  108-110,  223,  298, 
331-334,  348,  352,  357-360,  367,  379, 
386,  396-397,  407,  414,  425,  454. 

Ma-o'-ri§,  508. 

Marble,  53,  54. 

Mariposa  Grove,  169,  Fig.  152. 

Marquette  (mar-kef),  133. 

Marseille  (mar-sal'),  362. 

Mar'-tha's  Vinc'-y^rd,  49,  69. 


INDEX 


586 


Mttr-ti-nlque'  (nek),  213,  216. 
Mar'-y-land  (mer),  75. 
Mas-sa-chu'-setts  (choo),  55. 
Ma-tan'-zas,  183. 
Mat'-t5r-horn,  Fig.  379. 
Mau'-na  LO'-a,  184. 
Mauritius  (ma-rish'-i-us),  498. 
Mec'-ca,  448. 

Med'-i-tgr-ra'-n6-an,   320,   323,  363,  411, 
412,  428,  439,  '443,  444,  447,  479,  482, 
483,  484,  487,  497,  604. 
Mel'-bourne  (bgrn),  507. 
Mem'-phis,  101,  110,  113. 
Merced  River,  169. 
Mer'-i-den,  62. 
Mer'-ri-mac  River,  61. 
Mes-5-po-ta'-mi-a,  445,  446. 
Metal  manufacturing,  61 ,  62. 
Metz,  392. 
Mex'-i-co,  206-212. 
Mex'-i-co  City,  207,  211. 
Mex'-i-c5,  Gulf  of,  9,  214. 
Mich'-i-gan    (mish),   123,   130,  131,  133, 

134,  135,  166. 
Mich'-i-gan,  Lake,  132,  137,  139,  140. 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  67-95. 
Mi-ka'-do,  467,  468,  469. 
Mi-lan',  412,  418. 
Milk,  58,  73,  121. 
Mil-waw'-kee,  126,  139. 
Min-da-na'-o  (men),  186. 
Mining,  76,  108,  131,  152,  179,  199,  210, 

330,  352,  357,  367,  378,  386,  396,  413, 

424,  453,  459,  491,  506. 
Ministers,  British,  344. 
Min-n6-ap'-o-lis,  126,  131,  141. 
Min-ne-so'-ta,  14,  119,  125,  130,  131,  134, 

136,  141." 
Miquelon  (mek'-lon),  192. 
Mir  (mer),  385. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi  River,  9,  98,  105,  112,  119, 

140. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi,  State,  110. 
Mis-sou'-ri  (soo)  River,  136,  142. 
Mis-sou'-ri,  State,  119,  135,  140,  142. 
M5-bile'  (bgl),  101,  110. 
M5'-c/ia,  447. 
MO-ham'-me-dan§,  190,  281,  429,  431,  444, 

446,  448,  449,  486,  487,  488. 
MO'-hawk  River,  70. 


Mon'-a-cO,  355. 

M6-nad'-nock,  Mt.,  79. 

Mon-gO'-li-a,  460. 

Mon-go'-li-ang,   277,   385,  423,  456,  456, 

462,  467. 
Mon-rO'-vi-a,  497. 
Mon-soon',  259,  260,  261,  451,  460. 
Mon-ta'-na,  154,  155,  161. 
Mont  Blanc  (m6n  blon),  356,  461. 
Mon-te-ne'-gro  (na),  426,  428. 
Monterey  Bay,  172. 
Mon-te-vid'-e-6,  300. 
Mont-gom'-e-ry,  101,  110. 
Mont-re-al',''36,  195,  200,  201,  202,  412. 
Mooi^,  368. 
M6-raine',  14. 
Mor'-mon§,  159. 
M5-roc'-co,  369,  479,  480,  488. 
Mo'-ros,  190. 
Mos'-c5«7,  383,  387. 
Muir  Glacier,  178. 
Mu'-nicA,  402,  403. 
Mur'-ray  River,  500,  505. 

Na-go'-ya,  470. 

Nan-tuck'-et,  49. 

Na'-ple§,  414,  415. 

Nar-ra-gan'sett  Bay,  64. 

Nash'-u-a,  61. 

Nash'-ville,  113. 

Nas'-saw,  216. 

Na-tal',  490,  493. 

Natural  gas,  78,  79,  132. 

Naz'-a-reth,  446. 

Ne-bras'-ka,  129,  142. 

Nebraska,  U.S.S.,  171. 

Negroes,  276,  478,  490,  493. 

Ne-pal',  457. 

Neth'-er-lands,  346-350,  351,  353. 

Ne-va'-da^  149,  150,  163. 

New'-ark,  82,  83. 

New  Bed'-ford,  61,  62. 

New  Brung'-wick,  192,  194,  198. 

New  Cal-e-dO'-ni-a,  612. 

New  England  States,  49-64. 

New'-found-land,  16,  56,  192-202. 

New  Gwa-t6-ma'-la,  213. 

New  Guinea  (gin'-i),  398,  509. 

New  Hamp'-shire,  49,  50,  60,  62,  64. 

New  Ha'-ven,  62. 


636 


INDEX 


New  JSr'-sey,  75,  80,  82,  83,  87,  92. 

New  MexM-cO,  147,  156,  163,  164. 

New  Or'-le-§ns,  84, 104,  105, 110, 111-113, 

114. 
New'-pOrt  News,  71. 
New'-p5rt,  R.L,  64. 
New  South  Walei,  503,  505,  507. 
New  York  City,  67,  81,  88-89,  92,  93. 
New  York  State,  16,  71,  72,  73,  74,  76,  80, 

81,  82,  89. 
New  Z6a'-land,  508-509. 
Nl-ag'-^r-a  FaUs,  16,  70,  87,  472,  Figs.  66, 

74,  H. 
Nice  (n6s).  Fig.  340. 
Ni'-gSr,  363,  476,  493. 
Ni'-g5r  Territories,  495. 
Nlj'-ni  (nSzh),  Nov'-gO-rod,  387. 
Nile,  472,  476,  481-488,  493. 
Nineveh,  446. 
Nip-on',  466. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  310. 
NOm'-ad§,  448,  Fig.  449. 
Nome  City,  180. 
NOr'-fQik,  72,  95. 
Nor'-m^ng,  327. 
Nor'-ris-town,  92. 
North  America,  1,  47,  192,  219,  489,  441, 

460. 
North  Atlantic  Eddy,  283. 
North  Cape,  Fig.  267. 
North  Carolina,  98, 100, 101, 102, 107,  110. 
North  Dakota,  125,  126,  Figs.  112,  113. 
North  Sea,  360,  394. 

Nor'-way,  317,  373-378,  379,  380,  386,  424. 
N5'-va  Sc5'-tia  (sha),   16,    192,  196,  198, 

199. 
Nu'-rem-bSrg,  403. 
Ny-as'-sa,  Lake,  497. 

Oak'-land,  170. 

0'-a-s6§,  480,  482,  484. 

Oats,  126,  197. 

Ob'-e-lisk,  484. 

Ocean  Currents,  263-268. 

O'-der,  399. 

O-des'-sa,  388,  426. 

Og'-den,''  159. 

O-hl'-O,  74,  76,  79,  119,  121, 128, 126,  180, 

132,  140,  143,  Fig.  107. 
Ohio  River,  Figs.  119,  140. 


Oil  City,  79. 

0k-m-h6'-ma,  114,  116. 

Old  Point  Comfort,  71. 

0-le-an',  79. 

0-m^ha,  129,  142. 

On-ta'-ri-5,  Lake,  75. 

Ontario,  Province,  192,  198. 

0-pCr'-t5,  363,  370. 

Orange  Free  State,  489. 

Orange  River,  492. 

Oranges,  99,  106,  167,  160,  182,  209,  Fig 

144. 
Orbit  of  Earth,  241. 
Or'-6-gon,  149,  160,  166,  170,  172. 
Oregon,  U.S.S.,  171. 
O-ri-no'-co,  286,  301,  302. 
O-ri-za'-ba,  206. 
0-§a'-ka,  469. 
Osh'-kosh,  131. 
Ot'-ta-wa,  192,  195,  201. 
Ot'-to-m^n  Empire,  429, 431-432,  444-448. 
Ox'-ford,  340. 
Oxnard,  161. 
Oysters,  71,  330. 

Pa^gif'-ic  Currents,  266,  267,  268. 

Pacific,  Islands  of,  612. 

Pacific  Ocean,  18,  177,  184,  193,  261,  266, 

267,  286,  382,  460,  617. 
Pa-g5'-da,  Figs.  426,  429,  430. 
Pa'-go  Pa'-go,  186. 
Pa-l5r'-m5,  418. 
Pal'-es-tine,  446,  446. 
Pam'-pas,  288,  296. 
Pan-a-ma',  304. 
Pan-a-raa'  Canal,  214. 
Pan-a-raa'  Is(/i'-mus,  18,  304. 
Pa-ra',  296. 

Pa'-ra-guay  (gwi),  300. 
Pa'-ra-guay  (gwi)  tea,  300. 
Pa-ra-na' ,  293,  299,  300. 
Par'-is,  358,  360-362,  426. 
Par'-li-a-ment,  344. 
Pat-a-g5'-ni-a,  288,  298. 
Pat'-Sr-s6n,  83. 
Paw-tuck'-et,  61. 
Peat,  319,  336. 
P6-king',  441,  460,  465,  466. 
Penn-syl-va'-ni-a,  4,  63,  55,  70,  72,  74,  75, 

76,  79,  82,  92,  93,  99,  132. 


INDEX 


587 


Pe-nob'-scot,  62. 

Pen-sa^co'-l^,  101. 

Pe-o'-ri-a,  125,  126. 

Pepper,  182,  210. 

Per-nam-bu'-c5  (boo),  296. 

P6r'-sia  (shi-^),  442,  444,  448-449. 

P6-ru'  (roo),  291,  302,  303,  306-308. 

Peruvian  bark,  307. 

Petroleum,  78,  79,  108, 132,  189,  Figs.  71, 

89. 
Phil-a-del'-phi-^,  82,  83,  9^-93. 
Philippine  Islands  (fil'-ip-pin) ,  105,  171, 

186-190,  510,  511. 
Phoenix,  164. 

Pied'-mont  Plateau,  67,  98. 
Pilatus,  409. 
Pilgrims,  347. 
Pi-rae'-us,  434. 
Pisa  (pe'-za).  Fig.  384. 
Pitts'-burg,  76,  78,  82,  83,  92,  111,  143. 
Plants,  20-29,  288-289,  441-442,  477,  502. 
Pla'-ta,  298,  299. 
P5,  412,  418,  451. 
PO'-land,  389,  401,  421. 
Pom-pe'-ii  (pa-ye),  415. 
Pon§e  (or  pon'-tha),  184. 
Ponf-char-train',  Lake,  112. 
Popocatepetl  (p5-po'-cat-i-p4-t'l),  206. 
Port'  au  (o)  Fringe,  215. 
Port  Costa,  223. 
Port'-land,  Me.,  52,  62. 
Port'-land,  Ore.,  172. 
Por'to  Ri'-c5  (re),  105,  3.80-184,  207. 
Port  Said  (sS-ed'),  486. 
P5rts'-mouth,  Eng.,  337. 
Ports'-mouth,  N.H.,  62. 
P5r'-tu-g^l,  365,  366,  867,  369-370,  487. 
Po'-§en,  392. 
Potatoes,  29,  58,  75,  217,  306,  329,  335, 

348,  378,  386,  395. 
P5-to'-mac  River,  70. 
Pots'-dam,  400. 

Pottery,  83,  135,  362,  379,  468,  470. 
Poughkeepsie  (p5-kip'-si),  92. 
Prag?<e,  425,  426. 
Prairies,  119. 
Prescott,  164. 
Prevailing  Westerlies,  246,  247,  248,  253, 

257,  287,  288,  321,  322,  823,  827,  405, 

601. 


Pribilof  (pr8-b*-lov')  Islands,  178. 

Prime  Minister,  344. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  192,  106,  198. 

ProvM-dence,  61,  62. 

ProvMnge-town,  55. 

Prussia  (prush'-a),  391,  394,  400. 

Puebla  (pwebMa),  212. 

Pueblo  (pweb'-l5),  31,  155,  169. 

Pueblo  Indians,  31,  164,  207. 

Pu'-get  Sound,  16,  173. 

Pygmies,  493,  494,  495. 

Pyramids,  Figs.  448,  452,  DD. 

Pyr'-e-nee§,  318,  355,  365. 

Quarrying,  53,  69,  108,  418. 
Que-bec',  192,  201. 
QuS-bec',  Province  of,  192,  194. 
QueensMand,  503,  505. 
Queens'-town,  342. 
Quin'-cy  (zi),  Mass.,  64. 
Quinine,  307. 
Quito  (k6'-t5),  806. 

Railways,  63,  85,  92,  120,  137,  173,  202, 
234,  235,  296,  301,  337,  349,  353,  362, 
368,  379,  387,  399,  407,  408,  425,  454, 
469,  485,  497,  507,  509,  Fig.  237. 

Rain,  248-261. 

Rain  Belts,  249-261. 

Ra'-leigh  (li),  110. 

Ranching,  126,  161,  197,  208,  209,  297, 
299,  300,  310,  504,  506. 

Rangoon,  456. 

Rawhide,  153. 

Read'-ing,  82. 

Red  River,  125,  157,  198. 

Red  Sea,  439. 

Reichstag  (riks'-tag),  391,  Fig.  366. 

Religion,  278-279. 

Reunion,  498. 

Revolution  of  Earth,  240-241. 

R^iine,  346,  350,  361,  362,  892,  401,  402, 
408. 

Rhode  Is'-land,  61,  62. 

RAOne,  356^  360,  361,  862. 

Rice,  104, 185, 188,  209,  223,  300,  418, 462» 
464,  458,  469,  486,  490,  511,  Fig.  171. 

Rich'-mond,  74,  94. 

Ri'-ga  (re),  388. 


688 


INDEX 


Rigi  (r6'-g6),  Mt.,  409. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (r6'-5-d*  zha-na'-§-r5),  296. 

Rio  (re'-o)  Grande,  161. 

R6-a-n5ke',  82. 

Roch'-es-t5r,  75. 

Rock'-y  Mountains,  149,  151,  Fig.  134. 

R5'-man  Empire,  411,  417,  444. 

Ro'-raans,  327,  355,  433. 

Rome,  411,  416^17,  426,  433. 

R5me,  Ga.,  109. 

R5-sa'-ri-5,  299. 

Rotation  of  Earth,  239. 

Rot'-tSr-dam,  350. 

Rouen  (roo'-on),  358,  362. 

Rou-ma'-ni-a  (roo),  428,  429,  430,  431. 

Rubber,  213^  295,  300,  305,  497. 

Russia  (rush'-a),  79,  373,  382-389,   393, 

421,  429,  449-461,  466. 
Rut'-land,  54. 

Sac-ra-men'-to,  167,  170. 

SagM-naw,  131. 

Saghalien,  466. 

Sa-ha'-ra  Desert,  254,  363,  479,  480-481, 

495. 
St.  Au'-gus-tine  (t6n),  100. 
St.  Croix  (krwa),  216,  Fig.  205. 
St.  Etienne  (san-ta-t^-en'),  357,  358. 
St.  Gotli'-ard  Tunnel,  408. 
St.  He-lg'-na,  498. 
St.  Hel'-en§,  6. 
St.  John's,  195,  196. 
St.  Joseph,  142. 
St.  Law'-ren5e,  Gulf  of,  16. 
St.  Law'-renge  River,  192,  194,  199,  200, 

201. 
St.  Louis  (loo'-is),  34,  126,  129,  140,  141, 

142. 
St.  Paul,  88,  111,  126,  141. 
St.  Pierre  (pe-air'),  192. 
St.  Pe'-t5r's,  417. 
St.  Pg'-tSrs-biirg,  320,  388,  426. 
St.  Thomas,  216. 
St.  Vin'-§§nt,  216. 
Sa'-lem,  Mass.,  63,  201. 
Sa'-lem,  Ore.,  172. 
Salmon,  172,  173,    178,    195,  196,  Figs. 

155,  156,  183,  184. 
Salt,  76,  108. 
Salt  Lake  City,  159. 


Sa-m5'-a,  186. 

San  An-to'-ni-O  (n6),  114. 

San  Diego  Bay,  172. 

San  Fran-9is'-c5,  147,  169,  170,  171,  172, 

Figs.  P,  R,  S. 
San  Jos^  (ho-saO,  150. 
San  Juan  (hwan),  184. 
San  Pedro  Bay,  172. 
San  SaF-va-dor,  212,  213. 
Santa  Barbara  Channel,  172. 
San'-taF6  (fa),  164. 
San-ti-a'-go,  181,  182. 
San'-to  D6-mingo  (meng'-g5),  216. 
San'-tos,  295,  296. 
Sflone,  361. 

Sao  Paulo  (sowng  pou'-lo),  296. 
Sar-din'-i-a,  411. 
Sar-gas'-so  Sea,  263,  264. 
Sar-sa-pa-ril'-la,  305. 
Sas-katch'-e-wan,  192. 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  (soo  sant  ma'-ri),  137. 
Sa-van'-nah,  101,  104. 
Sa-van'-na§,  288,  477. 
Sax'-on§,  327. 
Sax'-o-ny,  401. 

Scanii-na'-vi-a,  323,  373,  374,  385. 
Schenectady  (ske-nek'-ta-di),  82. 
Scot'-land,  317,  327,  333^  341,  342. 
Scran'-ton,  77,  82. 
Seals,  178,  179. 
S6-at'-tle,  157,  172,  173. 
Seine  (san),  358,  360,  361,  362,  Fig.  343. 
SSr'-vi-a,  426,  429-430. 
Seville  (sev'-il),  367,  368. 
Sevres  (savr),  362. 
Shah,  449. 

Shang'-hai  (hi),  465. 
Shas'-ta,  Mt.,  6,  150,  Fig.  6. 
Sheep,  Argentina,  297. 
Sheep,  Australia,  504,  505. 
Sheep  Raising,  107,  122,  161,  197,  297, 

328,  358,  366,  386,  429,  433,  447,  448, 

487,  491,  504. 
Shef'-field,  333,  334,  336. 
ShetMand  Islands,  328. 
Shipbuilding,  82,  93,  171,  Figs.  147,  185. 
Si-am',  458,  459. 

Si-b5'-ri-a,  «82,  389,  441,  449,  460,  461. 
Sicily  (sisM-li),  411,  413,  418. 
Si-er'-rg,  (s6)  Le-6'-n6,  497. 


INDEX 


589 


Si-er'-r^  (s5)  Ne-vS'-d^  Mountains,  148, 

149,  169. 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  Spain,  366. 
Silk,  359,  413,  430,  448,  459,  463,  464,  465. 
Silver,  155,  210,  211,  306. 
Sim'-plon  Tunnel,  408. 
Sin-ga-pore',  460. 
Sit'-ka,  177,  178,  179. 
Slate,  65. 

Slavs,  385,  423,  429. 
Slavery,  36,  37,  102,  215,  291,  292. 
Smyrna  (sm5r'-na),  444. 
S6-ma'-li-land,  Italian,  496. 
Som'-&r-ville,  63. 
South  Af'-ri-ca,  478,  488-493. 
South    A-mer'-i-ca,    285-311,    452,    460, 

472. 
South-amp'-ton,  336. 
South  Aus-tra'-li-a,  503,  605. 
South  Car-o-li'-na,  101. 
South  Da-ko'-ta,  119,  135. 
Southern  States,  98-115,  333. 
South  Georgia,  311. 
Spain,  186,  207,  208,  292,  347,  364-369, 

487. 
Span'-iards  (yard),  32,  33,  34,  35,  36,  147, 

182,  188,  189,  190,  207,  210,  211,  291, 

292,  303,  306,  307,  308. 
Spice  Islands,  511. 
SpO-kane',  172-173. 
Spreckels,  161. 
Spring'-field,  Mass.,  62. 
Standard  Time,  44-46. 
StanMey  Pool,  493. 
Stass'-furt  (foort),  396. 
Steppes,  386,  429,  441. 
Stet-tin'  (ten),  399,  401. 
Stock'-hoZm,  379. 
Stock'-tcn,  157,  170. 
Stock  yar'^.j!,  137,  138,  139. 
Storms,  cyclonic,  257,  258,  259. 
Straits  Settlement,  459. 
Stra§s'-bfirg,  392. 
Strat'-ford-on-A'-von,  Fig.  326. 
Sudan  (s(5o-dan'),  3'63,  479,  480,  495. 
Su-ez'  (soo),  486. 
Suez  Canal,  485,  486. 
Su-ez'  (so5),  Isthmus  of,  439,  485. 
Sugar,  104,  105,  106,  181,  183,  185,  189, 


Sugar,  beet,  104,  105,  161,  897,  426,  Fig. 

146. 
Sugar,  maple,  53. 
Sultan,  190,  431,  488. 
Sulu  (soo-loo')  Islands,  190. 
Su-ma'-tra  (soo),  512. 
Su-pe'-ri-or  (soo),  131,  133. 
Su-p6'-ri-or,  Lake,  132,  133,  134. 
Surinam  (soo-ri-nam'),  300. 
Sus-que-han'.ji^  (kwfi)  River,  70. 
Swan'-sea,  367. 

Swg'-den,  373,  374,  378-379,  424 
Sweet  potatoes,  107. 
Swit'-zgr-land,  362,  405-409,  414. 
Syd'-ney,  Australia,  507. 
Syd'-ney,  Cape  Breton,  199. 
Syr'-a-cuse,  82. 
Syr'-i-an  Desert,  446. 

Ta-c5-ma,  150,  156,  157,  172.  17? 

Ta-fi-let',  480. 

Ta'-gus  River,  369. 

Tam'-pa,  108,  110. 

Tam-pi'-c5  (pe),  212. 

Tan-gan-yi'-ka  (ye),  489,  497. 

Tan-gier'  (ger),  488. 

Tanneries,  61,  101,  139. 

Ta'-6s  Pueb'-lo,  Fig.  28. 

Tapioca,  295. 

Tar'-tai-§,  444. 

Tash-kend',  451. 

Ta§-ma'-ni-a,  500,  503,  506. 

Tawn'-ton,  61. 

Tea,  456,  457,  458,  459,  464,  469. 

Teheran  (te-hran'),  449. 

Temperate  Zones,  261,  Fig.  244. 

Temperature,  Distribution  of,  268-272. 

Ten-nes-see',  98,  101,  102,  107,  108,  113. 

Territories  of  United  States,  177-190. 

TeG'-tons,  385. 

Tex'-as,  60,  99,  100,  102,  104,  107,.  108, 

113,  114,  115. 
Thames  (temz),  337. 
Ti'-bSr,  416. 
Ti-bet',  440,  460. 
Tides,  262-263. 
Tientsin  (t6-en'-tsSn'),  466. 
Tif-lis'  (16s),  451. 
Ti'-gris,  445,  446,  447. 
Tim-buk'-tu  (too),  480. 


540 


INDEX 


Ti-mOr'  (t6),  510. 

Tin,  308,  459. 

Ti-ti-ca'-ca  (t6-t6),  308. 

Tobacco,  29,  31,  74,  98,  181,  183,  189, 

209,  213,  296,  298,  304,  310,  368,  386, 

396,  424,  431,  433,  448,  462,  490,  Fig. 

68. 
T6-ba'-g5,  311. 
To'-ki-5  (k6),  469. 
To-l6'-d5,  140. 
Tong'-a  Islands,  Fig.  479. 
Ton'-o-pah,  163. 
To-pe'-ka,  143. 
T6-ron'-t5,  195,  201,  202. 
Trade  Winds,  244-248. 
Trans-vaal',  489,  490,  491,  493. 
Treb'-i-zond,  444. 
Tren'-tgn,  83,  92. 
Trieste  (tre-esf),  426. 
Trin'-i-dad,  311. 
Trip'-5-li,  479,  487,  488. 
Tropical  Forests,  294,  476. 
Trop'-ics,  242. 
Troy,  82. 

Tucson  (too'-son),  166,  164. 
Tun'-dra§,  21,  441. 
Ta'-nis,  863,  479,  487,  488. 
TQ'-rin,  418. 

Tftr-kes-tan',  449,  460,  460. 
Tiir-kes-tan'  (Chinese),  460. 
Tur'-key  in  Asia,  444-447. 
Tur'-key  in  Europe,  426,  429,  430,  431- 

482,  434. 
Turpentine,  101. 
Tuskegee  Institute,  114,  Fig.  96. 
Tutuila  (to6-too-el'-a),  186. 
Typhoons  (ti-foon§'),  187. 

United  Kingdom,  327,  344,  396,  411. 

United  States,  47-190. 

Universities,  63,  89,   93,    139,   170,   340, 

*342,  887,   Figs.  124  a,  124  b,  125  a, 

126  b. 
Upernivik  (oo-p5r'-ni-vik) ,  203. 
Upolu  (5o-po-loo'),  186. 
Upper  Guinea,  297. 
U'-ral  Mountains,  318,  386. 
Uruguay  (oo-roo-gwi'),  209-800. 
U'-tSA,  160,  165. 
D-ti-Oft,  78. 


Va-len'-cia  (shl-a),  860. 

Val-p^-rai'-so,  311. 

Van-cou'-v6r  (koo),  202. 

Vat'-i-c^n,  416,  Fig.  486. 

Ven-e-zue'-l^,  800-302. 

Ven'-ige,  412,  419,  Figs.  388,  389. 

Ve'-ra  Cruz  (krooz),  207,  212. 

V6r-mont',  50,  53,  54. 

Versailles  (v5r-salz'),  361,  362. 

Ve-su'-vi-us  (soo),  414,  415,  Fig.  E. 

Viceroy,  456,  457,  464. 

Vic-to'-ri-a,  Australia,  503,  607. 

Vic-to'-ri-a,  Canada,  202. 

Vic-to'-ri-a  Falls,  472,  492,  Figs.  BB,  CO, 

EE. 
Vic-to'-ri-a  Ny-an'-za,  497. 
Vi-en'-na,  421,  426. 

Vir-gin'-l-a  (v5r),  71,  74,  76,  82,  94,  96. 
Vir-gin'-i-a  City,  163. 
Vis-a'-li-a,  161. 
Vla-di-vos-tok',  451. 
Vol-ca'-noe§,  6,  9,  160,  178,  184,  186,  206, 

212,  216,  286,  305. 
Vol'-ga,  386. 

Wales,  327,  331,  367. 

Wal'-fisch  Bay,  493. 

Wftl'-tham,  62. 

War'-sato,  389. 

Wash'-ing-ton,  94,  113,  Fig.  85. 

Wash'-ing-tgn,  Mt.,  60,  53. 

Wash'-ing-ton,  State,  149,  150,  156,  166, 

172,  Fig.^J. 
Wa'-tSr-bury  (ber-i),  62. 
Wa'-ter-loo',  351. 
Wa'-t5r-town,  N.Y.,  72. 
Watson  ville,  161. 

Weather  Maps,  258,  Figs.  259,  260. 
Wel'-ling-ton,  509. 
West  Australia,  503. 
Western  States,  147-173. 
West  In'-die§,  186,  207,  214-216. 
West  Point,  89. 
West  Vir-gin'-i-a,    70,   79,   82,    93,    96, 

132. 
Westward  migration,  86. 
West  Wind  Drift,  266. 
Whales,  178. 
Wheat,  125,  126,  157,  197,  208,  298,  305, 

306,  310,  329,  336,  348,  866,  867,  878, 


INDEX 


641 


886,  395,  413,  424,  429,  444,  445,  448, 

452,  469,  489,  490,  505. 
Wheel'-ing,  82,  83,  143. 
White  Mountains,  49,  50. 
White  race,  277,  278. 
Wich'-i-ta,  143. 
Wilkes'-bar-re,  77. 
Wil'-liams-p5rt,  72. 
Wil'-ming-ton,  75,  82,  92,  93. 
Winds,  244-261. 

Winds,  influence  on  climate,  271. 
Wind-§or  Castle,  340. 
Win'-ni-peg,  197. 
Wi-nO'-na,  131. 

Wis-con'-sin,  130,  131,  134,  135,  139. 
Wool  manufacturing,  60,  62,  333,  357. 
Woon-sock'-et,  61. 
Worcester  (woos'-tgr),  62. 
Wu-chang'  (woo),  465. 
Wy-5'-ming,  159,  164. 


Yang'-ts6-ki-ang'  (k6),  461, 
YSr'-mouth,  195. 
Yellow  Race,  277,  443. 
Yel'-low-stone  Park,  164-166,  Fig.  K. 
Yer'-ba  ma'-te,  300. 
Y5-k0-ha'-ma,  467,  469. 
Y5-sem'-i-t6,  169,  Figs.  A,  M,  W. 
YQ-ca-tan',  207. 
Yu'-kon,  180,  193. 

Zam-b6'-zi,  472,  492,  493. 
Zan'-zi-bar,  498. 
Zinc,  135,  350,  413. 
Zones,  242-243,  Fig.  244. 
Zuider  Zee  (zl'-der  ze),  348,  360. 
Zulu  (zoo'-loo),  490. 
Zululand  (zoo'-loo-land) ,  490. 
Zurich  (zob'-rik),  407,  408. 
Zurich  (zoo'-rik).  Lake,  407. 


Bquabs  by  the  million— waiting  to  go  into  pie. 
A  sight  near  Loa  Angeles. 


Vernal  Falls,  Yosemite  Valley. 
The  Merced  River  at  this  point  is  eighty  feet  wide  and  drops  vertically  three  hundred  and 

fifty  feet. 


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"HOW  SHE  SITS  LIKE   A  QUEEN  BESIDE 
THE   BEAUTIFUL   SUNSET  SEA" 


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Fia.  513. 
State  Capitol,  Sacramento. 


A   SUPPLEMENT 

BY    THE 

STATE   TEXT-BOOK   COMMITTEE 

WITH   THE    COUNSEL    AND   ASSISTANCE    OP 

ALLISON  WARE,   R.  E.  HOLWAY,  JOB  WOOD,  JR.,  MARY  E.  GEORGE, 

R.  B.  HAYDOCK,  LEWIS  E.   AUBURY,    C.    K.    STUDLEY, 

J.  B.  MONLUX,  AND  WILLARD  S.  JOHNSON 


MA 


ASIDE  TO  THE  TEACHER 

You  will  find  this  little  Supplement  a  very  inadequate  thing. 
The  reason  is  not  hard  to  find.  It  is  impossible  within  the  limits 
of  so  few  pages  to  give  an  adequate  treatment  of  a  state  so  large,  so 
varied,  so  wonderful,  as  California. 

So  do  not  get  it  into  your  head  for  a  moment  that  what  is  here 
set  down  is  all  your  young  people  need  to  know  of  their  home  land, 
or  that  your  work  is  done  when  you  have  taught  this  and  nothing 
more. 

This  will  serve,  perhaps,  as  an  introduction;  as  a  skeleton  for 
your  work.  But  if  you  cannot  follow  up  the  introduction  by  many 
an  entertaining  conversation,  cannot  build  upon  and  round  out 
the  skeleton  by  stories  and  pictures  and  poems  and  experiences 
galore,  your  work  will  be  poor  indeed.  Make  of  it  a  pleasant  thing ; 
pleasant  for  you  and  delightful  for  the  children.  Surely  our  ideas 
about  our  home  state  should  have  pleasant  and  delightful  associa- 
tions. When  you  can't  feel  that  way,  postpone  California  and  give 
a  lesson  on  the  multiplication  table  instead. 

It  is  an  easy  thing  to  teach  children  to  make  an  outline  map  of 
California  in  half  a  minute.  Do  this.  Then  in  subsequent  work, 
a  hundred  times  and  more,  have  the  children  spend  a  minute  in 
drawing  the  outline  and  locating  upon  it  the  interesting  things  you 
are  thinking  about.  It  clarifies  their  ideas  and  gives  them  a  habit 
of  definite  thought.  Fill  yourself  full  of  California,  by  reading,  by 
conversation,  by  travel,  so  that  you  will  have  something  to  teach, 
and  then  teach  it  with  delight  and  enthusiasm,  else  the  children  will 
be  immune.  Many  famous  people  have  written  of  California, — 
John  Muir,  Bret  Harte,  Mark  Twain,  Mary  Austin,  Helen  Hunt 
Jackson,^  R.  H.  Dana,  Clarence  King,  Jack  London,  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson,  —  history,  novel,  poem,  magazine,  newspaper,  abound  in 
California  lore.  Make  some  of  it  yours.  Keep  your  eyes  open. 
So  order  your  life  that  gladly  you  can  learn  and  gladly  teach. 
Then  everything  will  come  out  all  right. 
,  ^.      ^,  EDWARD   HYATT. 


NOTE  TO   THE   TEACHER 

After  going  over  this  Supplement,  it  will  be  found  that  many 
important  interests  and  localities  have  been  treated  slightly,  or  per- 
haps not  even  touched  at  all.  This  is  unavoidable  in  covering  such 
a  large  and  varied  subject  in  so  few  pages.  Let  no  one  waste  time 
or  energy  in  pointing  out  omissions  or  weaknesses ;  rather,  let  the 
teacher  use  common  sense  and  enterprise  in  getting  together  supple- 
mental material  for  rounding  out  and  strengthening  the  bare  bones 
of  the  outline  wherever  necessary. 

DRAWING  MAP  OF   CALIFORNIA 

Probably  the  teacher  has  a  plan  of  her  own  for  drawing  an  outline  map 
of  California  quickly  and  simply.     If  not,  here  is  a  simple  way :  — 

(1)  Draw  a  horizontal  line  AB,  of  any  length,  suitable  to  the  space  to  be 
filled.  Probably  you  will  not  use  these  letters  with  the  children,  but  only  in 
seeing  the  plan  yourself. 

(2)  From  B  let  fall  a  perpendicular  to  C,  as  long  as  AB. 

(3)  Imagine  the  line  A  C  and  extend  it  in  the  same  direction  to  Z>,  making 
CD  about  twice  as  long  as  A  B. 

(4)  From  D  draw  the  Colorado  River  southward,  about  two  thirds  as  long 
as  AB  (to  E). 

(.5)  From  E  draw  a  horizontal  westward,  about  two  thirds  as  long  as  AB, 
ioF. 

(6)  From  A  to  F  draw  the  crooked  coast  line,  approximately  parallel  to  the 
eastern  line  of  the  state,  BCE. 

(7)  Put  in  Lake  Tahoe  at  the  elbow  C ;  San  Francisco  Bay  nearly  opposite, 
on  the  coast;  put  in  the  Sierras  and  Coast  Range  by  single  broad  strokes  of 
pencil  or  crayon ;  and  then  the  two  great  rivers ;  when  behold  1  there  is  Cali- 
fornia, in  a  minute  and  less.  Practice  on  this  in  concert  until  it  is  fixed  in  the 
minds  of  the  children,  and  until  you  see  how  much  the  time  can  be  reduced.  It 
will  be  fun,  if  you  manage  it  right  and  don't  overdo  it.  It  puts  something 
definite  in  the  mind  to  build  your  later  work  upon. 


fM 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Aside  to  the  Teacher 545 

Note  to  the  Teacher 546 

Drawing  Map  of  California 546 

Notes  and  Lists  of  References 548 

A  General  View  of  the  State 551 

The  Coast  Region 554 

The  Great  Valley  Region 565 

The  Sierran  Region 570 

Southern  California 582 

Dairying 589 

Agriculture 592 

Fruit  Growing 599 

Forests  and  Lumber 608 

Mineral  Products 612 

Manufacturing 618 

Transportation 820 

Earthquakes 623 

History 624 

Education 627 

Government 632 

Cities 634 

Last  of  All 635 

General  Questions 636 

Summary 638 

Products 638 

Population  of  California,  1850  to  1900 o        .        .  639 

Cities  and  Towns  of  2000  or  More  People;  Census  of  1900 639 

Height  of  Some  of  the  I raportant  Mountain  Peaks 640 

The  Counties  of  California 641 

Geographical  Names 642 

Index 6^ 


37— A  «  547 


NOTES   AND  LISTS   OF  REFERENCES 

FOR  USE  IN  STUDYING  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

The  geography  lesson  must  be  alive  with  a  reality  and  a  crisp  freshness 
guch  as  no  scanty  text  treatment  can  supply.  It  must  have  the  wealth  of  detail, 
the  vividness  of  outline,  that  supplementary  material  alone  can  bring.  Pictures, 
chalk  diagrams  and  sketches,  specimens,  curios,  stories,  poems,  and  supplementary 
reading  are  of  the  essence  of  success  in  geography  teaching.  If  your  school  is 
poor  in  such  illustrative  matter,  enrich  it.  If  it  is  still  poor,  be  rich  your- 
self. A  few  dollars'  worth  of  books ;  some  pictures  cut  from  railroad  circulars, 
board  of  trade  pamphlets,  magazine  advertisements  and  catalogs ;  a  handful  of 
specimens  of  our  common  rocks  —  granite,  basalt,  sandstone,  quartz;  specimens 
showing  commercial  processes;  occasional  sketch  maps  and  diagrams  upon  the 
blackboard ;  a  few  simple  models,  e.g.  Chinese  rocker,  oil  derrick,  snowshed,  dry- 
ing trays,  —  preferably  made  by  your  pupils ;  a  fund  of  stories,  experiences,  and 
anecdotes ;  a  few  poems  of  Bret  Harte  and  Joaquin  Miller ;  and  fresh  supplemen- 
tary reading  for  your  class,  or,  at  any  rate,  for  yourself :  these  properly  sprinkled 
through  the  work  will  make  each  lesson  a  rich,  living  experience  to  your  pupils, — 
and  to  you. 

The  following  books  are  suggested  as  of  first  value  to  your  school  library  for 
use  by  the  pupils.  If  enough  of  them  are  not  there  to  keep  the  work  fresh,  and 
if  you  cannot  secure  them  through  your  school  board,  get  a  few  of  them  to  start 
with  for  your  own  library,  as  part  of  your  teacher's  outfit.  Then  add  others  as 
necessity  demands  and  permits.  It  will  prove  as  good  an  interest- bearing  invest- 
ment as  you  ever  made. 

Carpenter :  Geography  Readers.     6  vols.,  each  60  cents.     American  Book  Co. 

Companion  Series :  7  vols.,  each  50  cents.     Perry  Mason  Co. 

Herbertson :  Descriptive  Geography  from  Original  Sources.  6  vols.,  each  75  cents. 
Macmillan. 

George  :  Library  of  Travel  Series.     10  vols.,  each  50  cents.     Flanagan. 

ISing:  Picturesque  Geography  Readers.  5  vols.  (Home  and  School,  50  cents; 
This  Continent  of  Ours,  3  vols.,  each  56  cents ;  Northern  Europe,  56  cents.) 
Lee. 

Youth's  Companion  Series :  7  vols.,  each  25  cents.     Ginn  &  Co. 

World  and  its  People  :  10  vols.  (Our  Own  Country,  50  cents ;  American  Neighbors, 
60  cents ;  Modern  Europe,  60  cents ;  Asia,  60  cents ;  Africa,  60  cents ;  Aus- 
tralia and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea,  68  cents ;  Hawaii  and  its  People,  68  cents ; 
South  America,  60  cents;  Philippines,  60  cents;  Porto  Rico,  60  cents.) 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Ballou :  Footprints  of  Travel.     80  cents.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Beal :  Information  Reader  No.  I.    60  cents.    Boston  School  Supplj  CW. 


NOTES  AND  LISTS  OF  BEFERENCES  64S 

Bradish :  Stories  of  Country  Life.    45  cents.     American  Book  Co. 

Carpenter :  Industrial  Reader  —  Foods.     60  cents.     American  Book  Co. 

Chamberlain :  How  we  are  Fed,  How  we  are  Sheltered,  How  we  are  Clothed,  How 
we  Travel.     40  cents  each.     Macmillan. 

Clifford :  Information  Reader  No.  II.     60  cents.     Boston  School  Supply  Co. 

Chase  and  Clow :  Stories  of  Industry.  2  vols.,  each  40  cents.  Educational  Pub- 
lishing Co. 

Carroll :  Around  the  World.     3  vols.,  each  50  cents.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Fairbanks :  Home  Geography.     60  cents.     Educational  Publishing  Co. 

Fairbanks  :  Western  United  States.     60  cents.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Johonnot :  Geographical  Reader.     $1.00.     American  Book  Co. 

Kirby :  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard.     35  cgnts.     Flanagan. 

McMurry:  Type  Studies  from  the  Geography  of  the  United  States.  50  cents. 
Macmillan. 

Parker:  Information  Reader  No.  III.     60  cents.     Boston  School  Supply  Co. 

Rocheleau :  Products  of  the  Soil,  Minerals,  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry. 
50  cents  each.     Flanagan. 

Roth :  First  Book  of  Forestry.    75  cents.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Rupert :  Geography  Reader.     65  cents.     Leach,  Shewell  &  Son. 

Sexton  :  Stories  of  California.     60  cents.     Macmillan. 

Stoddard  :  Lectures  —  California ;  Grand  Canon ;  Yellowstone.    $3.00.    Balch. 

Williams  :  Romance  of  Modern  Engineering.     $1.50. 

Bandini :  History  of  California.     75  cents.    American  Book  Co. 

The  following  geographical  material  is  at  your  hand  for  the  asking,  prepaid; 
or,  in  a  few  cases,  at  the  cost  of  its  publication.  All  of  it  will  prove  of  value 
to  the  teacher,  and  most  of  it  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  eighth  grade  pupils. 
Literature  concerning  almost  any  section  or  resource  of  California  may  be 
obtained  free  from  the  State  Board  of  Trade,  Ferry  Building,  San  Francisco; 
California  Promotion  Committee,  San  Francisco ;  or  the  Chambers  of  Commerce 
and  Boards  of  Trade  of  the  various  cities  and  counties  of  the  state.  Especial 
attention  is  called  to  the  publications  of  the  California  Promotion  Committee  and 
the  California  State  Board  of  Trade.  The  annual  bulletins  and  occasional 
circulars  of  these  organizations  should  be  in  each  teacher's  hands. 

These  bulletins  and  reports  contain  the  geographical  lore  of  our  state  and 
its  industries  that  the  great,  wide  world  cares  about.  They  are  alive  with  the  spirit 
of  enterprise  and  progress.     From  them  we  can  catch  the  hum  of  the  busy  workers. 

Reports  and  Bulletins  of  State  Officers  and  Organizations 

California  State  Board  of  Trade :  Annual  Report,  1908  —  California  Resources  and 
Possibilities  (Free)  ;  Circular  No.  8  —  Dairying  in  California  (Free).  Address, 
Ferry  Building,  San  Francisco. 

California  Promotion  Committee :  California  Annual,  1907;  1908  (Free);  Poultry 
in  California,  5  cents ;  Dairying  in  California,  5  cents ;  Intensive  Farming  in 
California,  5  cents;  Rainfall  Map  of  California,  2  cents;  Thermal  Map  of 
California,  2  cents. 

CaUfornia  State  Agricultural  Society :  Report,  1907.  (Free.)  Secretary  of  State, 
Sacramento. 


650 


NOTES  AND  LISTS  OF  BEFEBENCE8 


California  State  Mining  Bureau :  Annual  Bulletin,  No.  49.  (Free.)  Ferry  Build- 
ing, San  Francisco. 

Commissioner  of  Public  Works :  Report  containing  Report  of  the  Dabney  Commis- 
sion on  the  Reclamation  Problem,  1905.  (Free.)  Secretary  of  State,  Sacra- 
mento. 

Debris  Commissioner's  Report  on  Reclamation  Work  and  the  Swamp  Land  Problem, 
1907.     (Free.)     Secretary  of  State,  Sacramento. 

United  States  Geological  Survey  :  The  topographical  maps  of  the  Geological  Survey 
are  very  interesting  and  valuable.  They  are  printed  in  quadrangles,  costing 
about  five  cents  each.  Each  school  should  have  at  least  the  quadrangle 
including  its  own  district;  and  the  teacher  with  her  pupils  should  study  out 
the  way  to  use  it  in  traveling  about,  in  finding  new  roads,  in  understanding 
the  surface  of  the  surrounding  country.  Address  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  Sacramento,  California. 

Several  California  railroads  issue  pamphlets  dealing  with  scenic  and  economic 
aspects  of  our  state.  See  what  your  local  agent  can  secure  for  you.  Above  all, 
the  national  government,  through  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  prepared 
for  you  a  rich  supply  of  supplementary  matter,  much  of  it  of  popular  interest  and 
non-technical  in  its  expression.  Write  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  for  list  of  bulletins  and  circulars  on  hand  for  distribution  bearing 
on  farming,  forestry,  irrigation,  and  stock  raising.  You  will  find  many  of  them 
of  real  value,  especially  the  bulletins  on  forestry.  This  subject  has  been  better 
and  more  simply  treated  in  our  government  publications,  which  you  can  have  for 
the  asking,  than  in  any  other  series,  however  costly. 


Fig.  515. 
The  Home  of  Bamona,  Camaloa,  Veatura  Coiukty. 


0/^EGOJ\r 


REUEF  MAP  OP 

CALIFORNIA 


un^GD 


Fig.  616. 


662 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFOBNIA 


an  influence  upon  the  direction  of  the  winds  and  the  distribution 
of  the  moisture  and  the  heat. 

The  valleys  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  tiny  one  that  affords  a  foot- 
hold for  only  one  family,  up  to  the  Great  Valley  of  California,  more 
than  four  hundred  miles  long  and  fifty  miles  wide,  and  able  to 
support  a  population  of  millions. 

All  this  makes  our  state  the  most  varied  and  wonderful  one  of  all.  It 
brings  about  strange  differences  in  surface,  soil,  crops,  trees,  animals, 

minerals,  and  in  the 
occupations  of  men. 
It  makes  California  a 
difficult  thing  for  us 
to  grasp  as  a  whole, 
almost  impossible  to 
think  about  all  at  once. 
So  let  us  make  several 
bites  of  our  cherry  by 
roughly  dividing  the 
state  into  regions  each 
more  or  less  unlike  the 
other ;  then  talk  about 
them  and  think  about 
them  one  at  a  time. 

If  we  were  in  a 
balloon  high  up  over 
California,  the  thing  we 
should  notice  first  would  be  the  fact  that  our  ocean  shore,  our  smaller 
mountain  ranges,  our  great  valleys,  our  long  rivers,  and  our  higher 
mountain  chains  are  all  parallel  to  each  other,  all  extending  north- 
westerly by  southeasterly.  We  should  notice,  too,  that  the  eastern 
and  western  mountain  ranges  curve  together  at  the  southern  and 
northern  ends  of  the  Great  Valley,  and  that  the  southern  end  of  the 
state  is  a  region  of  mountains  and  valleys  running  this  way  and  that 
in  all  directions  (Fig.  516).  We  should  see,  therefore,  three  long 
and  narrow  strips  or  regions  running  lengthwise  of  the  state,  and  a 
fourth  region  south  of  these  with  its  mountains  and  valleys  tumbled 
about  in  considerable  confusion.  Thus  we  should  find :  (1)  the  Coast 
region,  containing  the  slope  to  the  ocean  and  the  Coast  Range 
mountains  and  valleys;  (2)  the  Great  Valley  Region,  from  the  Coast 
Ranges  to  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas;  (8)  the  Sierra  Region, 


Fig.  521. 
Ironwood  grove— Colorado  Desert. 


A   GENERAL   VIEW  OF  THE  STATE 


558 


containing  the  great  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains;  and  (4)  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, made  up  of  all  the  state  south  of  the  Tehachapi  Mountains. 
Of  course  we  must  understand  that  these  regions  are  not  very  definite 
and  that  they  cannot  be  very  accurately  mapped,  and  that  they  differ 
within  themselves.  This  is  merely  an  offhand  way  of  dividing  the 
state  so  that  we  can  think  of  one  part  of  it  at  a  time.  Now  for  a 
view  of  each  of  the  regions,  and  then  we  sliall  be  ready  for  the  stories, 


Fig.  522. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  —  Point  Loma  in  the  distance. 

"  Old  Ocean's  gray  and  melancholy  waste  —  " 

the  pictures,  the  books,  the  songs,  the  specimens,  the  observations, 
and  the  travels  about  California  that  will  really  give  us  a  knowledge 
of  our  state  and  an  appreciation  of  all  the  wonderful  and  interesting 
things  that  it  contains. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  Some  of  our  best  geographers  divide  California  into 
seven  regions  or  provinces,  using  the  four  above  given,  but  calling  the 
northern  Coast  Eange  the  Klamath  Province,  the  northern  Sierras  the 
Volcanic  Plateau,  and  the  southeastern  region  the  Desert  Province.  Most 
teachers  will  find  the  simpler  division  handier  and  more  workable  for  class 
use. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Mention  some  interesting  facts  about  the  size  of  California ;  its  extremes 
of  altitude ;  of  rainfall.  (2)  What  is  the  direction  of  the  great  mountain  ranges  ? 
(8)  Why  do  we  divide  the  state  into  regions?  Name  and  describe  them.  (4) 
Point  out  on  the  Relief  Map  the  four  regions.  (5)  What  terminates  the  Great 
Valley  Region  in  the  north  ?  In  the  south  ?  (6)  How  do  the  physical  features  of 
the  state  bring  about  differences  in  its  productions  and  tiie  industries  of  the  people? 


554 


GEOQBAPHT  OF  CALIFOBNIA 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

(1)  Describe  the  main  features  of  California  as  shown  on  the  Relief  Map. 
(2)  Draw  its  outline  and  show  the  principal  river  systems.  (3)  What  is  the  most 
important  watershed?  Describe  the  drainage.  (4)  Show  on  your  map  the 
mountain  ranges,  indicating  where  the  highest  mountain  peaks  are  found.  (5) 
Outline  the  Mojave  and  Colorado  deserts,  and  locate  Death  Valley  and  the  Salton 
Sea.  (6)  Why  was  it  very  hard  to  reach  California  before  the  railroads  were 
built?  (7)  What  would  be  the  best  road  from  San  Francisco  to  Nevada?  (8) 
Point  out  on  the  map  the  best  way  to  drive  from  your  home  to  San  Francisco. 
(9)  Hastherelief  of  California  influenced  the  course  of  the  railroads?  (10)  Where 
is  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  California?  The  lightest?  (11)  What  is  the  usual 
rainfall  of  the  region  in  which  you  live?  (12)  In  what  part  of  the  state  are  there 
many  lakes?  Few  lakes?  Why?  (13)  Suppose  the  mountain  ranges  ran  east 
and  west,  what  would  be  the  effect  on  the  coast  line  ?  On  the  climate?  (14)  If 
California  should  sink  one  thousand  feet,  where  would  its  coast  line  be  ?  Draw  a 
rough  outline  of  it.  (15)  Would  your  home  be  submerged  by  the  sea  ?  (16) 
Find  by  the  map  the  width  and  length  of  California  in  miles. 

The  Coast  Region 

The  Coast  Region  consists  of  the  mountains  near  the  sea,  —  the 
Coast  Ranges,  —  the  slope  between  them  and  the  ocean,  and  all  the 
valleys  nestled  among  the  hills  and  along  the  rivers  in  this  long, 
broken  mountain  strip  (Fig.  516).     The  higher  summits  reach  eight 


Fig.  523. 
Looking  down  the  Strait  of  Garquinez. 


THE  COAST  REGION 


556 


or  nine  thousand  feet  in  altitude.  The  whole  mountain  mass  is  cut 
through  by  Carquinez  Strait  (Fig.  523).  South  of  this  is  Mt.  Diablo 
Range,  separating  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  from  the  Great  Valley 
Region.  This  is  the  landmark  used  as  a  starting  point  by  the 
surveyors  in  measuring  and  describing  all  the  land  in  the  central 
part  of  the  state.  Mt.  San  Bernardino  is  similarly  used  for  the 
Southern  Region  (Fig.  537). 

In  this  region  the  west  wind  blows  the  most  of  the  year.     It 
brings  to  the  land  the  water  which  it  has  picked  up  in  passing  over 


Fig.  524. 
Ocean  fog  pouring  over  the  hills  into  San  Francisco  Bay. 


the  sea,  and  so  fogs  (Fig.  524)  in  summer  and  rains  in  winter  make 
the  climate  moist  and  cool.  This  narrow  strip  is  the  only  region 
in  the  whole  of  North  America  and  one  of  the  few  regions  of  the 
whole  world  where  the  weather  is  neither  very  cold  in  winter  nor 
very  hot  in  summer.  This,  too,  is  due  to  the  west  winds,  which  take 
their  mild  temperature  from  the  sea  in  passing  over  it  and  then 
blow  in  to  the  land,  keeping  our  coast  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in 
summer.  A  cool  ocean  current  flows  off  the  shores,  and  this,  too, 
affects  the  west  wind  and  the  fogs. 

Our  harbors  are  few.  This  is  because  the  mountain  ranges  run 
nearly  lengthwise  with  the  coast,  instead  of  sticking  out  crosswise 
into  the  sea.  Best  of  all  these  harbors  is  San  Francisco  (Figs.  525, 
526),  a  noble  and  lordly  bay,  so  large  that  all  the  navies  of  all  the 


65d 


Fig.  526. 


Where  ships  and  rails  meet— Long  Wharf,  Oakland. 


Key  route  pier— Ferry  between  Oakland,  Berkeley  and  San  Francisco. 


THE  COAST  REGIOir 


667 


world  at  once  could  ride  at  anchor   within   its  shelter.     Its  pres- 
ent shape  was  caused  by  a  slow  lowering  of  the   coast  in  ancient 


Fig.  527. 

The  largest  ferry  boat  in  the  world  —  /Sotono  — crossing  Strait  of  Carquinez. 

Capacity,  four  average  size  trains. 

times,  enough  to  let  the  sea  flow  into  what  was  the  lower  valley  of  a 
great  river  of  California,  the  united  Sacramento-San  Joaquin.     This 


Fig.  528. 
"  The  Golden  Gate  "  from  San  Francisco  Bay.    One  mile  wide. 

great  river  flowed  down  through  Carquinez  Strait  (Fig.  523),  down 
through  the  valley  that  is  now  the  bay,  and  poured  its  yellow  tide 


558 


GEOGBAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 


into  the  blue  sea  through  the  Golden  Gate  (Fig.  528).  Now,  how- 
ever, the  lower  valley  is  under  water,  and  is  called  a  drowned  valley. 
It  makes  a  vast  system  of  bays  and  inland  waterways  leading  away 
up  into  the  very  heart  of  the  state.     Here  around  San  Francisco  Bay 


Fig.  529. 
San  Diego  Bay,  Coronado  Beach  on  the  right,  city  of  San  Diego  in  the  distance. 

center  the  activities  of  the  state.  Here  the  commerce  of  the  world 
passes  from  the  high  seas  to  the  interior  of  our  rich  land.  Here 
the  people  and  the  products  of  the  land  find  easy  means  of  passing 
out  to  all  the  world. 

San   Diego   Bay  (Fig.   529),    Monterey   Bay   (Fig.    531),  and 
Humboldt  Bay  (Fig.  532)  are  beautiful  harbors,  too.     San  Pedro 


Fig.  530. 
San  Pedro  Harbor. 


(Fig.  5B0)  is  the  chief  harbor  for  Los  Angeles.     There  are  other 
harbors  still,  but  these  are  the  principal  ones. 


Fia.  531. 


THE  COAST  RSGIOS 


561 


California's  islands,  like  its  harbors,  are  few ;  and  for  the  same 
reason.  If  the  ends  of  the  mountain  chains  ran  oat  toward  the  sea, 
many  submerged  hills 
would  raise  their  heads 
above  the  water  as  islands. 
Off  San  Francisco  are  the 
Farallone  Islands  (Fig. 
517),  a  little  chain  marking 
the  tip-top  summits  of  the 
most  western  ridge  of  the 
Coast  Ranges,  about  thirty 
miles  off  shore.  Between 
these  and  the  shore  the 
water  is  comparatively 
shallow;  but  outside  it 
goes  down  at  once  to  the 
depths  of  the  deep  ?=?. 
Within  San  Francisco  Ba 
are  several  small  islands 
used  by  the  United  States 
government :  Alcatraz  is  a 
military  prison  and  a  fort ; 
Goat  Island,  almost  within 
touch  from  the  ferry  in 
crossing  from  Oakland  to  San  Francisco  (Fig.  525),  has  the  naval 
training  station ;  the  government  has  a  navy  yard  located  on  Mare 


Fig.  533. 

United  States  gteanmhip  Bemnutgion  in  diy  dock  at 
Mare  Idaad  navy  yard. 


k^  "7 

'j>-^  ;»^ii£^^BBj|^^^^^^^j|^^^^H 

-r'^*-'*"'^.                        ^^ 

▲  typieal  coast  town 


Fig.  534. 
Santa  Barbara  T«l*««i«  in  the  ilifltanf^ 


562 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Island  (Fig.  533),  and  Angel  Island  is  used  as  a  quarantine  station 
(Fig.  526).     Off  Santa  Barbara  and  Ventura  counties  are  the  Santa 


Fig.  535. 
United  States  cruiser  California. 

Barbara  Islands  (Fig.  534).  Santa  Barbara  Channel  (Fig.  537), 
between  these  islands  and  the  coast,  is  used  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  test  the  war  vessels 
(Figs.  148,  535)  built  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  before 
accepting  them  from  the 
contractors.  Near  San  Luis 
Obispo  are  the  San  Luis 
Buttes,  a  succession  of  bold 
hills  which  terminate  in 
"Morro  Rock,"  a  bare, 
rocky  island  rising  to  an 
elevation  of  about  600  feet 
(Fig.  536). 

Capes,  like  harbors  and 
islands,  are  few.  Why? 
The  most  noticeable,  perhaps,  are  Cape  Mendocino  on  the  rock- 
bound  northern  coast,  and  Point  Conception  (Fig.  537)  in  the  south. 


Fig.  636. 
Morro  Rock. 


^B'            -^  '■mpr^mwm^^^^^^^M 

^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

9PV^I 

; 

ir'!^Rj^| 

I^K^                          * 

i 

^  i  fli 

^                           '•'  ' 

■■^t  f'-'      .-^^^^HHI 

im 

San  Bernardino  Mountains  in  midwinter.    Oranges  ripe  in  the  valley  below.  Redlands. 


State  Industrial  School,  Whittier. 


564 


(fSOGBAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 


South  of  Point  Conception  the  coast  line  swings  away  to  the  east. 
Going  inland  from  this  point,  we  find  the  high  Tehachapi  Mountains 
running  crosswise  and  forming  a  natural  boundary  between  Southern 
California  and  the  rest  of  the  state.  South  of  this  line  the  rainfall 
becomes  lighter,  the  natural  vegetation  scantier,  the  climate  dryer 
and  milder. 

Mineral  springs  of  various  sorts  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
Coast  Region.  In  Lake  County  there  are  thousands  of  them.  Health 
resorts  have  been  established  near  many  of  these  springs,  and  people 


Fig.  539. 

A  bit  of  Lakeport  on  Clear  Lake.    Mt.  Konocti,  or  "  Uncle  Sam, 

4246  feet  in  height. 


in  the  distance,  rising 


come  in  summer  time  to  drink  or  bathe  in  their  waters.  At  one 
place  five  springs  are  found  within  a  few  feet  of  each  other,  and  each 
of  a  different  water.  One  is  of  clear,  almost  ice-cold  mountain 
spring  water,  while  another  just  at  hand  supplies  strong  mineral 
water  steaming  hot.  Soda  Bay,  a  shallow  arm  of  beautiful  Clear 
Lake  (Fig.  539),  is  fed  by  soda  springs  in  the  bottom  of  the  lake. 
One  of  these  springs  gushes  up  a  foot  or  more  above  the  level  of  the 
lake,  and  people  go  out  in  boats  to  drink  the  fine  soda  water  it 
supplies. 

The  pleasure  resorts  on  the  beaches  of  the  Coast  Region  are  remark- 


TME  GREAT  VALLEY  REGION  565 

able  (Fig.  538).  The  people  flock  to  them  in  the  summer  time  to 
enjoy  the  cool  sea  breezes,  the  surf  bathing,  the  fishing,  boating,  and 
swimming  that  the  salt  water  affords.  Among  the  most  famous 
points  are  Santa  Cruz,  Monterey,  Pacific  Grove,  Pismo,  Santa  Bar- 
bara, Ocean  Park,  Huntington  Beach,  Santa  Monica,  Newport,  Long 
Beach,  Santa  Catalina,  and  Cor  on  ado.  An  imaginary  trip  to  one 
or  more  of  these  places  might  be  made  a  jolly  summer  lesson  by  the 
geography  class. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Is  the  Coast  Region  mountainous  or  level?  Describe  its  general  features. 
(2)  What  strait  cuts  through  it?  (3)  What  mountain  south  of  the  strait? 
Find  it  on  the  map  of  San  Francisco  and  vicinity,  Fig.  526.  (4)  For  what  is  it 
used?  What  mountain  in  the  south  is  similarly  used?  (5)  What  is  the  prevail- 
ing wind  of  the  Coast  Region  ?  (6)  Explain  how  this  aifects  the  climate. 
(7)  Tell  about  the  harbors.  (8)  Which  is  the  best?  How  was  it  formed? 
What  is  a  drowned  valley?  (9)  Mention  three  other  important  harbors. 
(10)  Why  are  there  few  islands?  (11)  Describe  the  islands  off  the  coast  near 
San  Francisco.  Near  Santa  Barbara.  (12)  What  islands  in  San  Francisco  Bay? 
For  what  is  each  used?  (13)  Name  two  important  capes.  (14)  What  are  pleas- 
ure resorts?  (15)  Name  those  best  known  on  the  coast  of  California.  (16)  De- 
scribe any  of  these  resorts  or  natural  springs  that  you  may  have  visited. 

The  Great  Valley  Region 

This  might  well  be  called  the  region  of  interior  plains.  The 
valleys  are  so  large,  reaching  from  the  lesser  mountains  of  the  coast 
to  the  giant  Sierra  Nevadas  (Fig.  540)  on  the  east,  and  the  slope  is 
so  slight,  only  a  foot  or  two  to  the  mile,  that  they  appear  like  vast 
level  plains  when  we  travel  about  in  them,  not  like  valleys  at  all. 
We  can  think  of  them  as  valleys  only  when  we  remember  how  the 
water  flows  (Fig.  541)  from  them,  and  where  the  drainage  goes. 
They  are  made  by  a  broad  downward  bend  of  the  earth's  crust,  not 
by  erosion,  as  were  the  steeper  valleys  of  the  mountains.  They  are 
covered  deeply  with  sediment,  for  they  were  once  the  floor  of  the 
sea  ;  and  this  is  covered  again  by  soil  washed  from  the  mountains 
and  spread  over  the  valleys  by  the  rivers.  They  spread  out  into  one 
of  the  largest  and  richest  bodies  of  level  land  (Fig.  542)  in  the  world. 
The  northern  part  of  this  region  is  called  the  Sacramento  Valley, 
the  southern  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  To  go  from  the  Sacramento 
Valley  northward  into  Oregon  is  difficult,  for  the  Sierras  and  Coast 
Ranges  come  together  as  an  elevated  plateau  about  Mt.  Shasta  (Fig. 
6) ;  and  to  go  southward  from  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  is  still  mor« 


566  GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

difficult,  for  the  valley  is  rimmed  by  the  Sierras  and  Coast  Ranges 
coming  together  as  the  Tehachapi  Range.  The  railroads  wind 
through  this  tangled  mountain  mass  by  way  of  the  Tehachapi  Pass. 
The  Tehachapi  Loop  is  a  famous  piece  of  railroad  engineering  where 
the  railroad  crosses  under  itself  through  a  tunnel. 

The  whole  Great  Valley  Region  is  an  inland  one.     Therefore  it 
has  less  of  the  west  wind,  and  so  less  fog,  less  rain,  hotter  summers, 


Fig.  540. 
Kings  River  Canon  —  High  Sierras. 

and  colder  winters  than  the  Coast  Region.  It  is  for  the  most  part 
treeless;  although  in  the  north  there  are  splendid  groups  of  oaks 
(Fig.  542)  dotting  the  plains;  and  in  the  south  are  great  groves  of 
Cottonwood,  pepper  trees,  and  willow.  In  the  southern  end  of  the 
Great  Valley  is  a  group  of  broad,  shallow  lakes  formed  by  the  build- 
ing of  deltas  across  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  by  the  larger  streams 
flowing  down  from  the  mountains,  such  as  the  Kern,  the  Kaweah, 
and  Kings  rivers  (Fig.  544).  Thus  crosswise  dams  were  formed, 
behind  which  the  drainage  of  the  San  Joaquin  basin  was  caught  in 
such  stagnant,  reedy,  alkaline  lakes  as  Tulare  and  Buena  Vista. 
More  and  more  the  water  that  flows  into  these  basins  from  streams 


667 


Fig.  543. 
Street  scene  in  Alameda,  a  city  of  beautiful  homes. 


Fia.  544. 
Falls  on  Bubbs  Creek  —  Kings  River  Canon.    A  famoiis  iioat  stream. 

6%% 


TWIB  GBEAT  VALLEY  BWOION 


M9 


and  artesian  wells  (Fig.  545)  is  being  used  for  irrigation.  Tulare 
Lake,  once  the  largest  sheet  of  water  in  the  state,  is  disappear- 
ing and  its  rich  sedimentary  bed  giving  place  to  hundreds  of 
splendid  farms.  Along  the  lower  courses  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  is  an  enormous 
body  of  overflowed  land, 
called  "  tule  land,"  perhaps 
two  million  acres  in  extent. 
Small  parts  of  it  have 
been  reclaimed  by  building 
levees  about  it,  sometimes 
twenty  or  even  thirty  feet 
high.  This  reclaimed  land 
is  as  rich  as  the  famous 
delta  of  the  Nile.  It  pro- 
duces wonderful  crops  of 
beans,  onions,  celery,  and 
asparagus.  The  overflows 
are  caused  by  the  choking 
of  the  river  channels  by 
washings  from  the  moun- 
tains. The  "  slickens  "  from 
hydraulic  mines  form  a 
large  part  of  this  deposit. 
When  the  winter  rains 
come    and    the    mountain 


Fig.  545. 

Artesian  well,  Kings  County,  1858  feet  deep- 
eight  and  one  half  inches  over  the  pipe. 


flows 


snows  melt,  the  choked  channels  cannot  carry  all  the  water.  Then 
all  the  lowlands  along  the  river  are  flooded.  Think  what  a  loss 
this  is  to  the  wealth  of  the  state.  A  hundred  laws  have  been  passed 
concerning  it ;  a  score  of  long  reports  have  been  written  by  com- 
mittees ;  and  twenty  million  dollars  has  been  spent,  here  and  there, 
first  and  last,  in  efforts  to  keep  the  water  in  the  rivers  where  it 
belongs.  But  with  all  this,  little  has  been  accomplished.  Little 
will  be  accomplished  as  long  as  each  locality  tries  to  keep  dry  by 
turning  the  flood  waters  off  upon  its  neighbors.  The  remedy  will 
only  come  from  some  great  system  of  levees,  dams,  canals,  and  chan- 
nel improvements  which  will  protect  all  parts  of  the  overflowed 
section  and  store  the  winter  water  for  summer  use.  This  is  a  great 
undertaking,  worthy  of  the  best  efforts  of  our  state  or  of  our  national 
gOTernment.     The  time  is  surely  coming  when  it  will  be  done;  and 


570  &EOGRAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 

then  these  lands,  as  rich  as  any  in  the  world,  will  offer  pleasant 
homes  and  productive  farms  to  thousands  of  people. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Describe  the  Great  Valley  Region.      (2)  How  was  it  formed  ?     (3)  Yv^hy 
is  it  hard  to  get  into  Oregon  from  this  region?      Into  Southern   California? 

(4)  Is  it  easy  to  get  to  the  ocean  from  this  region?     To  go  east  into  Nevada? 

(5)  Compare  the  climate  with  that  of  the  Coast  Region.  (6)  Describe  the  timber 
growth.  (7)  Describe  the  lakes  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  telling  where  found 
and  how  formed.  What  is  happening  to  Tulare  Lake?  Why?  (8)  Where  is 
the  "  tule  "  land  ?  (9)  What  causes  this  overflow  ?  How  is  the  land  reclaimed, 
and  for  what  is  it  used?  (10)  How  is  this  region  drained?  (11)  Describe 
hydraulic  mining.  What  is  meant  by  "slickens"?  (12)  How  do  the  overflows 
benefit  the  land? 

The  Sierran   Region 

The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  run  lengthwise  with  the  state  along 
its  eastern  side.     They  were  made  by  an  upward  bend  of  the  earth. 


Fig.  546. 

Fishing  in  the  Kern  River  Canon. 

"  The  river  niurmured  over  the  pebbles, 
The  pines  faintly  whispered,  and  that  was  all. 


The  crest  of  this  upward  bend  broke  during  ages  past,  and  one 
edge  of  the  break  slipped  up,  the  other  down,  by  a  long  succession  of 
little  shocks,  a  few  feet  at  a  time.  The  upturned  western  edges  of 
the  break  are  the  present  summits  of  the  mountains.     The  western 


THE  SIERRAN  REGION 


671 


slope  is  long  and  gradual,  down  to  the  great  valleys ;  the  eastern  is 
short  and  steep,  almost  overhanging  the  desert  regions  below  and  to 
the  east. 

The  region  is  one  of  rough  mountains,  of  dashing  streams  (Fig. 
546),  of  splendid  forests  (Fig.  152),  of  yawning  chasms  (Fig.  C), 
of  lovely  green  meadows,  of  deep  rocky  canons   (Fig.  540).     In 


Fig.  647. 
"  In  the  days  of  old,  the  days  of  gold,  the  days  of  '49." 

the  higher  altitudes,  lumbering  and  stock  raising  are  the  occupa- 
tions ;  in  the  lower  parts,  mining  and  fruit  raising.  The  Mother 
Lode  is  a  great  series  of  ledges  of  gold-bearing  quartz,  reaching 
from  El  Dorado  County  in  the  north  to  Mariposa  County  in  the 
south.  It  is  about  one 
hundred  miles  long  and 
from  one  to  six  miles  wide. 
Here  is  one  of  the  famous 
mining  regions  of  the  world. 
In  the  caiions  and  streams 
near  it  and  derived  from  it 
were  the  rich  placer  dig- 
gings that  brought  Cali- 
fornia's fame  "  in  the  days 
of  old,  the  days  of  gold,  the 
days  of  '49"  (Fig.  547). 
From  a  single  claim  twenty- 
four  feet  square  was  some- 
times washed  more  than 
1200,000  worth  of  gold  by 
means  of  an  iron  pan  about  the  size  of  a  dish  pan.  Here,  too,  were 
the  great  hydraulic  mines  in  which  a  powerful  stream  of  water  was 
sent  through  a  nozzle,  called  a  "  giant,"  to  tear  down  and  wash  away 
the  banks  of  the  river  and  the  steep  hillsides  (Fig.  136).      The 


Fia.  548. 
Chinaman  washmg  gravel  for  gold. 


572 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFOBITIA 


gravel  or  placer  mines  are  exhausted  now,  and  most  of  the  hydraulic 
mines  are  closed  down.  Quartz  mining  (Fig.  138)  has  developed 
in  their  place.  Even  yet,  however,  the  children  of  Mariposa  and 
Placerville  sometimes  find  bits  of  gold  in  the  streets  after  a  heavy 
rain,  perhaps  worth  a  dollar  or  two;  and  a  lone  Chinaman  (Fig.  548) 
may  occasionally  be  seen  working  over  again  the  piles  of  gravel  that 
were  washed  by  the  older  miners,  so  long  ago. 

The  greatest  wealth  of  the  Sierras,  however,  is  not  in  its  gold,  but 
in  its  water.     The  streams  dashing  down  its  caiions  (Fig.  546)  are 


A  Power  House,  where  electrical  power  is  generated  from  a  mountain  stream  and  sent  far 
away  to  turn  the  wheels  of  industry  and  to  run  the  cars  in  and  about  the  cities  of  San 
Francisco  Bay.  Observe  at  the  top  of  the  hill  the  headgate  where  the  water  is  admitted 
from  the  canal  into  the  great  pipes  that  lead  it  down  under  tremendous  pressure  to  the 
wheels  in  the  power  house.  Notice  the  force  with  which  the  water  shoots  from  the 
wheels  into  the  bed  of  the  stream. 

This  plant  is  at  Colgate  in  Yu15a  County  and  belongs  to  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric 
Company. 


of  great  value  now,  and  will  be  worth  fabulous  fortunes  in  the 
future.  They  will  irrigate  and  make  fruitful  the  farms  and  gardens 
for  millions  of  people  in  the  valleys  bBlow.     They  will  supply  pure, 


tBt:  SliJEBAN  RJSGIOIf 


678 


cold  drinking  water  for  the  valley  cities.  Already  San  Francisco 
and  Los  Angeles  are  taking  steps  to  bring  water  from  the  Sierras  to 
supply  their  people.  The  power  generated  from  them  (Fig.  549) 
will  turn  the  wheels  of  industry  and  do  the  work  of  the  state. 
There  are  many  companies  even  now  carrying  the  power  of  these 
swift  rivers  by  means  of  electricity  over  many  parts  of  the  Great 
Valley  and  the  Coast  Region,  and  even  out  on  the  deserts  of  Nevada. 
Some  of  this  power  is  used  in  cities  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
from  the  power  house  (Fig.  550)  away  up  in  the  Sierras  where  the 


Fig.  550. 

Interior  view  of  the  Edison  Electric  Power  House,  Kern  River  Canon.  Power  from  this 
plant  is  furnished  Los  Angeles  and  surrounding  cities  of  Southern  California,  120  miles 
away.    Notice  the  large  dynamos  which  generate  the  electric  current. 


water  does  the  work.  What  a  wonderful  thing  it  is,  and  how  inter- 
esting to  learn  about  !  Just  think  of  our  getting  our  light  and  heat, 
power  to  run  our  mills  and  factories,  and  the  electric  cars  (Fig.  551) 
which  carry  us  up  and  down  all  over  the  land,  from  these  untiring, 
ceaseless  rivers  over  a  hundred  miles  away  from  us  I  We  must  guard 
these  streams  well.  We  must  value  them  and  see  that  they  are 
used  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  people  of  the  future,  not  heedlessly 
given  away  to  selfish  speculators. 


6T4 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Fig.  551. 
Passenger  coaches,  Northern  Electric  Railway.    Suburban  train  running  between  Sacra- 
mento and  Chico.      Notice  the  "trolley"  on  the  top  of  car,  used  within  city  limits; 
"  third  rail  "  used  in  the  country.    Why  ? 

These  rivers  depend  in  large  measure  upon  the  forests  (Fig.  152) 
for  their  even,  steady  flow.     The  roots  of  the  forest  trees  and  the 

soil  which  they  help  to 
form  and  then  protect 
from  washing,  and  the 
bed  of  fallen  leaves  and 
branches  which  they 
build  up,  hold  the  water 
that  comes  from  the 
heavy  rains.  Little  by 
little,  all  through  the 
year  this  water  seeps 
down  into  the  river 
channel  or  trickles  out 
in  the  form  of  springs 
(Fig.  552).  Thus  the 
rivers  receive  a  constant 
supply,  and  are  able  to 
do  the  useful  work  to 
which  men  put  them. 
If  the  forests  were  de- 
stroyed, many  of  the 
valuable  streams  would 
run  dry  in  summer  time, 
Fig.  552.  for   the   rainfall  would 

Natural  spring  flowing  from  the  mountain's  side.     One     quicklv    TUn    down   the 
of  the  many  at  the  headwaters  of  Sacramento  River.  j     r -n  j 

The  water  is  as  clear  as  crystal  and  icy  cold.  naked    hill     and    moun- 


Longltudt  yftkt 


Fig.  663. 


Virgin  Forest. 
Sierra  National  Forest,  Madera  County,  near  Wawona,  on  road  to  Yosemite  Valley. 


Destruction  of  forest  due  to  logging  and  to  fire.    Stanislaus  National  Forest,  Tuolumn© 

Ck)uuty. 


TSE  SIERRAN  REGION 


575 


tain  sides.  Thus  we  should  not  only  lose  our  trees;  but  our  streams, 
that  mean  so  much  to  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  would  be  dangerous 
torrents  in  winter  time,  bringing  flood  and  damage  ;  and  in  summer 
they  would  be  dry  gulches,  barren  and  glaring  in  the  hot  sun.  The 
United  States  government  is  trying  to  preserve  our  forests,  and  thus 
preserve  our  rivers,  which  rise  on  the  wooded  mountain  sides. 
Millions  of  acres  of  timber 
land  have  been  reserved  as 
National  Forests  (Fig.  553). 
This  means  that  these  for- 
ests have  been  set  aside 
and  cannot  be  taken  up  by 
private  owners.  Instead,  the 
government  places  rangers 
(Fig.  554:)  in  charge  of 
them,  to  see  that  they  are 
protected.  Any  one  who 
wishes  to  cut  timber  on 
these  National  Forests  must 
first  get  permission  and  pay 
something  for  the  privi- 
lege ;  he  must  cut  only  the 
mature  trees,  and  must  not 
destroy  tlie  young  trees  or 
set  fires.  These  National 
Forests  are  reserved  by 
the  government  so  that  the 
forests  may  be  used  without 
being  destroyed  ;  so  that  our  children  and  our  children's  children 
may  have  lumber  in  the  years  to  come;  so  that  these  priceless  rivers 
that  irrigate  the  land  and  do  the  work  in  the  valleys  below  may 
always  add  to  the  wealth  of  all  the  people. 

In  the  sheltered  little  valleys  near  the  central  and  highest  part  of 
the  Sierras,  stand  a  few  groves  of  the  Big  Trees,  found  nowhere  else 
in  the  world.  The  Calaveras  Grove,  the  Mariposa  Grove  (Fig.  152), 
the  Tuolumne  Grove,  are  well-known  examples.  The  Big  Tree  is  a 
cousin  to  the  redwood  of  the  Coast.  Its  botanical  name  is  Sequoia 
Gigantea,  while  the  redwood  is  Sequoia  Sempervirens.  Its  lumber 
is  very  much  like  redwood,  and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes. 
Large  quantities  of  it  are  shipped  to  Germany  to  make  lead  pencils. 


Fig.  554. 

U.  S.  Forest  Ranger  — Santa  Barbara  National  For- 
est. Rangers  guard  the  interests  of  the  Govern- 
ment by  protecting  the  forests  from  fires  and  the 
timber  tidm  vandalism. 


676 


QEOOEAPHT  OF  CALIFOBNIA 


Counting  the  rings  of  some  of  the  great  trees  that  have  been  chopped 
down,  we  find  them  to  be  over  four  thousand  years  old.  Think  of  it  ! 
They  were  already  ancient  trees  when  Christ  walked  the  earth.  They 
were  already  three  thousand  years  old  when  Columbus  discovered 
America,  yet  the  man  with  an  ax  (Fig.  139)  can  destroy  in  a  few 
days  what  has  required  all  the  centuries  to  grow.  One  of  the  larg- 
est trees  is  the  Grizzly  Giant  (Fig.  555)  in  the  Mariposa  Grove.     It 

is  35  feet  in  diameter  and 
300  feet  high.  It  is  an 
interesting  thing  for  a  class 
to  join  hands  in  the  school- 
yard and  make  a  circle  as 
big  around  as  the  Grizzly 
Giant :  then  try  to  imagine 
the  circle  filled  with  solid 
wood,  a  great  column  tow- 
ering to  the  sky. 

This  central  part  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
where  the  big  trees  are 
found,  is  known  as  the 
High  Sierras  (Fig.  bbQ^. 
It  is  a  region  of  granite 
peaks  and  deep  caiions. 
No  less  than  eleven  of  the 
summits  are  over  14,000 
feet  high.  The  highest  peak 
of  them  all,  and  the  loftiest 
summit  in  all  the  United 
States,  is  Mt.  Whitney 
14,501  feet  high.  One  of 
the  famous  canons  is  the 
Yosemite  (Fig.  557),  on  the  upper  Merced  River.  This  is  a  wonder- 
ful gorge  cut  out  by  glaciers,  with  mighty,  cliff-like  walls  of  granite 
towering  3000  feet  above  the  valley  floor.  Over  these  walls  tumble 
a  number  of  streams  to  joih  the  Merced,  making  the  highest  water 
falls  in  the  world.  The  famous  Yosemite  Falls  (Fig.  A)  are  over 
2600  feet  high,  making  three  successive  plunges  with  short  rapids 
between.  We  get  a  better  idea  of  this  height  when  we  remember 
that  Niagara  is  only  160  feet  high.     People  come  from  all  over  the 


Fig.  555. 

"Grizzly  Giant"  —  Has  lifted  its  head  toward  the 
heavens  for  over  four  thousand  years. 

"  My  heart  is  awed  within  me  when  I  think 
Of  the  great  miracle  that  still  goes  on, 
In  silence,  round  me."  — Bryant. 


THE  SIERRAN  REGIO:S 


5T7 


Fig.  556. 

The  Whitney  Range  of  the  High  Sierras,  called  "  the  roof  of  the  United  States."    Notice 
how  plainly  the  timber  line  is  marked. 


Fig.  557. 
A  view  of  the  floor  of  Yosemite  Valley.    Bridal  Veil  Falls  on  the  right,  Merced  River  in 
the  foreground,  El  Capitan  on  the  left,  the  perpendicular  face  of  which  is  larger  than 
a  farm  of  640  acres. 

"  God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way  His  wonders  to  perform." 


678 


QEOQRAPBY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


world  to  see  this  wonder- 
ful valley.  Kings  River 
(Fig.  540)  and  Kern  River 
(Fig.  558),  too,  have  mag- 
nificent caiions  similar  to 
the  Yosemite,  but  not  *  so 
well  known. 

In  the  Sierras  are  many 
lakes  formed  by  glacial 
action.  Some  are  basins 
scooped  out  of  the  solid 
rock  by  the  glaciers; 
others  are  formed  from  the 
damming  of  water  courses 
by  the  moraines  left  by 
the  melting  glaciers  ;  still 
others  are  formed  by  the 
damming  of  valleys  by 
lava  flows.  These  beauti- 
ful Alpine  lakes  vary  from 

clear,  cold  pools  a  few  yards  across  up  to  matchless  Lake  Tahoe  (Fig. 

659)  6225  feet  above  sea  level,  twenty -three  miles  long,  thirteen  miles 


Fig.  658. 
Looking  down  Kern  River  Canon. 


Fig.  559. 

'*  Matchless  Lake  Tahoe  "  with  the  snow-capped  Sierras  in  the  distance.    Forty  years  ago 

Mark  Twain  said,  "  It  must  surely  be  the  fairest  picture  the  whole  earth  affords." 


TEE  8IERRAN  REGION 


S79 


wide,  situated  at  the  "  elbow  "  of  California  and  partly  in  Nevada. 
These  lakes  are  full  of  many  kinds  of  trout,  and  ofPer  rare  sport  to 
the  fishermen  (Fig.  560). 
They  add  greatly  to  the 
scenic  attraction  of  the 
mountains.  At  Boca  on 
the  Truckee  River  is  a  nat- 
ural ice  plant  (Figs.  561- 
562). 

The  High  Sierra  region 
(Fig.  556}  has  been  called 
the  roof  of  the  United 
States,  since  it  is  the  high- 
est place.  It  has  been  called 
the  playground  of  America, 
since  its  canons,  its  forests, 

its  peaks,  its  trout  streams,  its  flower-spangled  meadows,  its  cold 
lakes,  its  pure  clear  air,  its  crystal  water,  its  wonderful  scenery,  all 


Fig.  560. 
Trout  fishing  ou  Lake  Tahoe. 


Fig.  561. 

Cutting  ice  on  the  Truckee  River.     Notice  the  freight  cars  waiting  to  be  loaded  with 
1m  for  market.    Observe  the  dress  of  the  workmen . 


580 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


go  to  make  up  an  ideal  region  for  an  outdoor  summer  life.  Along 
its  cool  trails  and  in  its  deep  forests  tired  humanity  builds  up  again. 
We  should  help  along  all  patriotic  efforts  to  preserve  this  great 

pleasure  ground  in  its 
natural  condition,  as  a 
precious  treasure  to 
pass  along  to  our  people 
of  future  generations. 
If  we  spoil  it,  destroy 
it,  waste  it,  give  it 
away,  or  permit  it  to  be 
stolen  from  us,  it  can 
never  be  reproduced. 
Once  gone,  it  will  be 
gone  forever.  If  we 
are  cowardly  or  indif- 
^^^•^^'  ferent,    it   will   all   be 

A  storehouse  for  ice.    Notice  how  the  men  catch  the  large  '      rl     >»  ^       r\ 

cakes  of  ice  and  work  them  over  toward  the  tramway  seizea     Dy     piunaercrs, 

where  they  are  caught  and  carried  up  into  the  store-  who  care  onlv  for  them- 
house.    Thousands  of  tons  are  stored  in  this  manner  in  i         i  •  i. 

winter  and  kept  for  summer  use.  Selves,    and    wno    WlSh 

only  to  coin  its  trees, 
its  grass,  and  its  waters  into  ready  money,  to  be  carried  off  and 
spent,  regardless  of  the  loss  that  this  would  bring  to  the  people 
of  our  state  for  all  the  years  to  come. 

The  northern  end  of  the  Sierran  Region  flattens  out  into  a  vol- 
canic plateau,  with  occasional  lofty  peaks  standing  out  alone,  such 
as  Mt.  Shasta  and  Lassen  Peak.  This  leads  north  into  the  Cascades 
of  Oregon.  The  plateau  occupies  most  of  Modoc,  Shasta,  Siskiyou, 
and  Lassen  counties.  The  country  is  largely  made  up  of  lava  and 
other  volcanic  rocks.  The  lava  from  Mt.  Shasta  is  often  carved  into 
ornamental  shapes  and  taken  away  by  tourists  as  souvenirs.  Hot 
springs  abound.  Shasta  water  is  known  all  over  the  world,  and  is 
an  important  article  of  commerce.  Underground  streams  are  not 
uncommon.  They  come  out  from  under  the  lava  as  great  springs. 
One  in  Shasta  County  makes  a  whole  river  —  Fall  River,  tributary 
to  the  Pitt.  The  latest  volcanic  activity  of  the  United  States  was 
that  about  the  base  of  Lassen  Peak,  perhaps  less  than  a  hundred 
years  ago.  Some  very  perfect  volcanic  cones  are  found  with  lava, 
ashes,  and  cinders,  so  recent  that  vegetation  has  not  yet  started  to 
cover   them.     The  trees  burnt  off  are  not  yet  rotted  away.     The 


THE  8IEBBAN  REGION 


581 


lava  beds  of  Modoc  County  are  well  known  as  the  hiding  places  of 
Captain  Jack  and  his  band  of  Indians  during  the  Modoc  War  of 
1873.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  mountain  passes  that  have  been 
so  carefully  chosen  by  the  engineers  who  built  the  transcontinental 
railroads  eastward  through   the  difficult  Sierras.     Farthest   north, 


Fig.  5G3. 
Traveling  by  rail  over  the  High  Sierras  in  midwinter  via  Donner  Pass. 

the  Western  Pacific  chose  the  Beckwith  Pass.  The  Central  Pacific 
occupied  the  Donner  Pass  (Fig.  563).  In  the  south  the  Southern 
Pacific  went  through  the  San  Gorgonio  Pass,  while  the  Santa  Fe  and 
the  Salt  Lake  use  the  Cajon  Pass. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  What  is  the  Sierran  Region  ?  (2)  Tell  how  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 
were  made.  Why  are  they  so  steep  on  the  eastern  side ?  (3)  What  are  the  main 
industries  in  this  section?  (4)  Where  is  the  Mother  Lode?  How  long  is  it? 
(5)  How  did  the  first  miners  in  California  work  ?  (6)  Describe  quartz  mining 
(p.  153).  (7)  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  value  of  the  streams  of  California. 
How  are  they  used  ?  (8)  Write  a  composition  on  the  subject,  "  Why  our  forests 
must  not  be  destroyed."  (9)  How  is  the  government  preserving  the  forests? 
(10)  Tell  about  the  Big  Trees.  Describe  their  size  and  age.  (11)  Where  are  the 
High  Sierras  ?  Describe  them.  (12)  Which  is  the*  highest  peak  in  the  United 
States  ?  How  high  is  it  ?  How  many  peaks  in  the  state  are  over  14,000  feet  high  ? 
(13)  Tell  about  Yosemite  Valley.  (14)  Tell  what  you  can  of  Kings  River  Canon ; 
of  Kern  River  Canon.  (15)  How  do  the  lakes  of  this  region  differ  from  those  of 
the  Valley  Region  ?  How  were  they  formed  ?  (16)  Describe  Lake  Tahoe.  De- 
Bcribe  the  northern  end  of  this  region.    Name  two  high  peaks.     (17)  Can  you  tell 


-A« 


562 


MEOGRAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 


something  of  the  cutting  and  storing  of  natural  ice  ?  (Figs.  561,  562).  (18)  In 
what  part  of  tlie  region  has  there  been  recent  volcanic  activity  ?  (19)  Describe  the 
lava  beds,  and  tell  for  what  they  were  noted.  (20)  Trace  on  your  maps  the  four 
different  routes  taken  by  the  railroads  through  the  Sierra  Nevadas. 


Southern  California 

This  region  (Fig.  537)  lies  south  of  Point  Conception  and  the 
Tehachapi  Mountains.  It  is  divided  into  an  eastern  desert  portion 
and  a  fruitful  western  one  by  the  Sierra  Madre,  a  high  mountain 

wall  composed  of  the 
San  Gabriel,  San  Ber- 
nardino, and  San  Ja- 
cinto ranges,  with  low 
passes  between.  This 
is  the  Southern  repre- 
sentative of  the  Sier- 
ras, and  is  like  them 
in  plants,  animals,  and 
climate  (Fig.  564),  al- 
though the  summits 
are  not  quite  so  high. 
The  desert  portion 
of  Southern  California 
is  very  large,  about 
one  sixth  of  the  whole 
state.  It  includes  the  Mojave  and  Colorado  deserts.  It  is  divided 
into  many  broad  valleys  and  basins  by  hundreds  of  mountains  and 
ranges  of  mountains.  Some  of  these  are  dry  plateaus  several  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea,  while  others  are  low  sinks  hundreds  of  feet 
below  the  sea,  such  as  Death  Valley  and  the  Salton  Sea.  Nearly 
all  moisture  is  cut  off  by  the  high  mountains.  A  little  rain  falls 
and  there  is  an  occasional  cloudburst;  but  the  water  is  soon  lost  in 
the  dry  canons  and  the  hot  sands.  The  summer  weather  is  very 
hot,  sometimes  130°  in  the  shade.  Many  a  poor  prospector  or 
traveler  ventures  too  far  into  these  wastes,  and  leaves  his  bones  to 
bleach  in  the  blazing  sun. 

The  broad  level  valleys  of  this  region  appear  to  be  old  lake 
bottoms  dried  up,  or  nearly  so,  since  a  time  when  there  was  a  much 
greater  rainfall.  When  these  lakes  are  nearly  dry,  the  water  is 
heavily  saturated  with  various  salts  and  alkalis  th^t  have  washed 


Fig.  564. 

Bear  Valley  in  San  Bernardino  Mountains.  How  does  the 
timber  compare  with  that  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains ? 


SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


583 


down  from  the  neighboring  highlands.  When  the  Salton  Sea  was 
dry,  a  layer  of  pure  salt  a  foot  thick  covered  many  square  miles,  and 
was  worked  for  several  years  by  a  great  salt  company  (Fig.  565). 


Fig.  565. 

Harvesting  salt  from  the  bottom  of  the  Salton  Basin  before  the  overflow.  The  salt  scraped 
up  into  piles  is  ready  to  haul  to  the  milL  All  this  is  now  deep  beneath  the  waves  of 
Salton  Sea  (Fig.  567). 

A  similar  deposit  is  found  in  Inyo  County.  A  layer  of  rock  salt  of 
unknown  depth  is  found  in  San  Bernardino  County.  From  the  water 
of  Owens  Lake,  carbonate 
of  soda  is  extracted  by 
evaporation  (Fig.  566)  and 
is  shipped  out  to  the  world 
at  the  rate  of  two  carloads 
per  day.  Some  of  the  old 
lake  bottoms  near  Death 
Valley  yield  borax,  some 
soda,  some  niter,  and  some 
a  mixture  of  these  salts. 
The  region  is  a  chemical 
storehouse  on  a  great  scale. 
There  are  many  interest- 
ing things  to  learn  about 
it  —  fortunes  in  it  for  those  who  find  out  how  to  go  and  get  them. 
Rich  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead  are  found  on  these 
deserts,  and  gem  stones,  such  as  turquoise  and  opal.     Some  people 


• '  «"_u-i-  -^'^-  ^^^Sac^S^ 

^!^"-::^?^ 

® 

r^^m^ 

Fig.  566. 

Owens  Lake,  Inyo  County,  showing  soda  evaporating 
basins,  inclosed  by  banks  of  mud.  The  lake  water 
is  pumped  into  the  basins  and  evaporated  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun. 


584 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


think  the  deserts  contain  more  wealth  than  all  the  fruitful  country 
on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains.     One  of  the  most  interesting  and 

wonderful  parts  of  the  desert 
is  the  great  area  known  as  the 
basin  of  the  Salton  Sea  (Fig. 
567).  This  was  once  the  upper 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  California, 
but  was  long  ago  cut  off  from 
it  by  the  sand  and  mud  brought 
down  by  the  Colorado  River. 
When  the  water  dried  up,  an 
empire  of  dry,  loamy  land  was 
left,  in  the  shape  of  great 
plains  that  sloped  very  gradu- 
ally toward  the  bottom  of  the 
basin.  A  small  lower  part  of 
the  basin  was  not  good  soil,  being  covered  with  salt  and  sometimes 
with  water  by  the  breaking  over  of  the  Colorado.     The  interesting 


Fig.  567. 

Salton  Sea,  253  feet  below  sea  level,  36  miles 
long,  12  miles  wide,  34  feet  deep.  Formerly 
from  the  bed  of  this  sea  was  harvested  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  salt  (Fig.  565). 


Fig.  568. 

This  beautiful  artesian  well  gushes  out  of  the  parched  and  burning  soil  of  the  Colorado 
Desert,  in  the  Salton  Basin.  The  water  is  very  pure  and  clear,  and  flows  smoothly  over 
the  pipe  and  into  the  pool  beneath  with  a  gentle  murmur,  all  in  the  very  place  where 
men  have  died  of  thirst.  This  well  has  been  sunk  by  some  settler,  who  will  clear 
away  the  greasewood  brush,  the  mesquite  trees,  and  reclaim  a  fertile  little  farm  by 
M«ans  of  th«  itrMun  from  this  mnrmoring  fountain. 


SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


585 


thing  is  that  this  part  of  the  desert  is  even  now  being  reclaimed 
and  made  to  support  its  share  of  the  human  race.  Of  course  it 
is  irrigation  that  does  it.  The  high  temperature  and  the  rich  soil 
are  just  the  things  needful  for  luxuriant  plant  growth,  if  water  can 
be  added  to  them.  The  western  portion  of  the  basin  reaches  the 
base  of  the  San  Jacinto  and  San  Bernardino  mountains,  whose 
summits  are  high  enough  to  catch  rains  and  snows  from  the  sea 
winds.  This  moisture  flows  down  under  the  desert  sands  and  comes 
up  again  in  the  artesian  wells  (Fig.  568)  that  are  now  being  sunk 
on  the  desolate  wastes  where  men    formerly  lost  their  lives  from 


Fig.  569. 
Headgate,  Imperial  Valley  Canal,  Imperial  County. 


thirst.  Each  well  reclaims  a  little  farm  from  the  grip  of  the  desert ; 
and  thus  the  western  end  of  this  desert  is  disappearing.  In  the 
eastern  end  of  the  basin,  toward  the  Colorado  River,  it  was  found 
a  simple  matter  to  take  out  canals  (Fig.  569)  from  the  river  at 
the  Mexican  boundary,  and  irrigate  the  lands  downward  toward 
the  bottom  of  the  basin. 

Thus  grew  up  the  settlement  called  Imperial.  Seven  years  ago 
not  one  single  white  man  lived  in  the  whole  expanse.  To-day  there 
are  towns  and  schools  and  railroads  and  electric  lights  and  12,000 
people  !  It  has  been  made  into  a  new  county,  a  county  on  the 
desert  and  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Thus  the  eastern  end  of  the 
basin  is  being  changed  from  a  desert  waste  to  fruitful  land.  The 
Colorado  is  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  continent.  Perhaps  its 
waters  will  yet  wash  the  deserts  of  California  entirely  off  the  map. 
Here  again  lies  work  to  do  and  fame  and  fortune  to  fight  for.     There 


686 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


is   plenty   of   opportunity   in   the   future   for   the   thoughtful   and 
courageous  boys  who  are  now  so  busy  going  to  school. 

The  crops  in  this  basin  are  so  much  earlier  than  anywhere  else 
that  it  might  be  called  the  hothouse  of  America.     Cantaloupes  and 


Fig.  570. 
Cutting  alfalfa  for  hay  in  December.    Grown  in  Imperial  County  by  means  of  irrigation. 

apricots  ripen  in  May;  grapes  and  peaches  in  June;  hay  can  be  cut 
in   December  (Fig.   570).     Wonderful   crops  of   barley,  sorghum, 

alfalfa,  melons,  and 
vegetables  are  grown. 
This  would  be  a  fine 
place  for  another  imag- 
inary journey,  in  which 
you  would  probably 
learn  the  striking  story 
of  how  the  whole  tide 
of  the  Colorado  River 
broke  through  (Fig. 
571)  the  Imperial  Coun- 
try into  the  Salton 
Basin  in  1905,  and 
how  it  was  stopped. 

Southern  California 
west  of  the  Sierra 
Madre  Mountains  is 
one  of  the  richest  and 
most  famous  regions  of 
the  world.  It  is  a  strip  averaging  about  sixty  miles  wide,  broken 
up  into  many  valleys  (Fig.  572)  by  a  multitude  of  hill  and  mountain 


New  River.  Formed  by  the  breaking  through  of  the 
Colorado  River  and  resulting  in  the  making  of  the 
present  Salton  Sea,  Fig.  567.  Notice  the  large  cracks 
on  the  river  bank  caused  by  the  water  washing  away 
the  soil. 


Fig.  572. 
An  orange  grove  in  a  valley  of  Southern  California.    San  Bernardino  Mountains  in  the 

distance. 


Fig.  573. 

Irrigating  an  orange  grovoc 

687 


588 


GEOQBAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 


ranges.  The  rainfall  though  scanty  is  sufficient  to  form  numerous 
rivers  and  streams  and  artesian  basins.  These  have  been  carefully 
utilized  for  irrigation  (Fig.  573),  and  have  made  a  wonderful  trans- 
formation of  the  whole  land.  It  has  often  been  said  that  water  is 
like  magic,  and  that  at  its  touch  the  country  blooms.  People  buy 
water  rather  than  land.  That  is,  the  land  is  of  no  value  unless  there 
is  water  available  to  go  with  it.     Thirty  years  ago  the  region  was  an 


Fig.  574. 
Spring  Street,  Los  Angeles,  during  parade  of  naval  officers,  April,  1908. 

arid  sheep  pasture,  with  a  few  sleepy  Mexican  villages  scattered  here 
and  there.  Now  these  eight  southern  counties  contain  a  quarter  of 
the  people  of  the  State.  Los  Angeles  is  second  only  to  San  Fran- 
cisco in  size ;  and  is  a  fine  modern  city  (Fig.  574)  with  magnificent 
buildings,  princely  hotels,  huge  stores,  and  all  that  goes  to  make  a 
city  great.  It  is  the  center  of  a  wonderful  railroad  and  trolley 
traffic.  Electric  roads  make  a  network  over  the  whole  land,  con- 
necting scores  of  towns  and  cities.  These  southern  cities  are  famous 
for  their  beautiful  homes  (Fig.  575)  and  their  splendid  avenues. 
Their  wide  streets  are  paved  or  oiled  to  keep  down  the  dust,  and 


DAIRYING  689 

are  shaded  by  great  trees.     The  homes  are  surrounded  by  lawns  and 
shaded  by  vines  and  trees,  and  adorned  by  flowers  (Fig.  154).     It 


Fig.  575. 
A  beautiful  home  in  beautiful  Pasadena. 

pays  to  make  a  country  attractive  and  beautiful,  so  that  visitors  are 
pleased  and  people  want  to  make  their  homes' there.  Orange  groves 
in  these  choice  localities  are  worth  a  thousand  dollars  per  acre. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  What  mountains  cut  off  Southern  California  from  the  other  regions? 
(2)  What  mountains  divide  this  region  into  two  parts?  (3)  How  are  these 
mountains  like  the  Sierras  ?  (4)  Describe  the  eastern  desert  part.  (5)  Why  is 
there  little  rain?  (6)  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  venture  far  out  on  the  desert? 
(7)  In  what  county  is  Death  Valley  ?  Salton  Sea  ?  (8)  Why  was  salt  deposited 
by  Salton  Sea?  (9)  How  was  Salton  Sea  formed?  (10)  How  is  this  basin  being 
reclaimed  now?  (11)  Why  is  this  region  called  a  chemical  storehouse?  What 
minerals  are  found  here?  (12)  How  is  the  eastern  end  irrigated?  (13)  Why  is 
there  luxuriant  growth  of  plant  life  here  ?  (14)  Tell  what  you  can  of  Imperial 
County.  Describe  its  crops.  (15)  How  is  the  western  end  of  this  basin  irrigated? 
(16)  What  of  the  section  west  of  the  Sierra  Madres?  Name  its  largest  cities. 
For  what  are  they  famous?  (17)  Why  did  Los  Angeles  grow  to  be  the  largest 
city  of  the  south?  (18)  How  is  water  secured  in  this  section  ?  (19)  Describe  an 
artesian  well.     (20)  Describe  the  homes  of  the  southland. 

Dairying 

Dairying  is  the  great  industry  of  the  Coast  Region.  The  cool, 
moist  climate  provides  plenty  of  green  grass  for  the  cows,  and  the 
weather  is  so  mild  that  the  dairyman  does  not  have  to  build  expen- 


590 


GEOOBAPHT  OF  CALIFOBNIA 


sive  barns  and  milking  sheds  to  shelter  his  stock  (Fig.  576).     Every- 
one says  that  CaKfornia  butter  has  the  best  flavor  ;  and  this  is  no 


Fig.  576. 
A  dairy  ranch  in  San  Mateo  County.    Milking  the  cows  out  of  doors  in  a  corral. 

wonder  when  one  remembers  that  the  cows  have  green  grass  to  eat 
almost  the  whole  year  round.  Humboldt  and  Marin  counties  are 
especially  known  for  their  dairies.     We  must  not  think,  however, 


Fig.  577. 
Milch  cows  feeding  on  the  rich  alfalfa  pasture. 


that  the  rest  of  the  state  produces  no  butter,  for  every  county  in 
California  has  some  share,  large  or  small,  in  this  great  business.  In 
the  irrigated  districts  of  the  Great  Valley  and  the  Southern  Region 
the  green  alfalfa  fields  feed  (Fig.  577)  thousands  of  cows.     Alfalfa 


DAIRTINQ 


591 


is  a  forage  plant,  be- 
longing to  the  clover 
family.  It  grows  lux- 
uriantly (Fig.  578)  in 
the  sandy  soils  of  the 
interior  when  irri- 
gated, and  remains 
green  a  large  part  of 
the  year.  Splendid 
dairies  are  growing  up 
in  the  Great  Valley 
Region  and  in  South- 
ern California,  depend- 
ing upon  alfalfa  as  fodder.  This  change  made  in  the  agriculture 
of  a  whole  state  by  one  small  plant  is  a  most  interesting  story. 
It  is  worth  further  study  and  inquiry.  Mrs.  Sherman,  of  Fresno 
County,  proved  that  the  interior  could  make  as  good  butter  as  the 


Fig.  578. 
Stacking  alfalfa  hay  —  Stockdale  Ranch 
Grown  by  irrigation. 


Kern   County. 


Fig.  579. 

University  Farm  Creamery,  at  Davis.    Separators  in  upper  picture;  churns,  and  packing 
butter  for  market,  in  lower  picture.    What  else  do  you  see? 


592  GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFOBNIA 

Coast  by  taking  the  first  prize  at  the  State  Fair  a  few  years  ago. 
Her  prize  tub  of  butter  was  made  and  shipped  with  the  thermometer 
at  104°,  so  the  greater  heat  of  the  interior  does  not  prevent  success. 
On  some  of  the  larger  dairy  ranches,  the  owner  makes  his  own 
butter ;  but  more  often  he  runs  the  fresh  milk  through  a  separator 
and  then  sends  the  cream  by  wagon  or  train  to  some  creamery  (Fig. 
679),  where  he  is  paid  for  it  according  to  its  richness.  The  skimmed 
milk  goes  to  the  hogs,  calves,  and  chickens,  and  a  thrifty  dairyman 
will  often  make  half  as  much  from  these  as  he  does  from  his  butter. 
With  all  our  cows  and  dairies  (Fig.  576),  however,  we  should  some- 
times have  to  eat  dry  bread  if  we  did  not  import  butter  from  other 
states.  We  are  not  yet  able  to  supply  our  own  markets  all  the  year. 
Dairying  is  a  profitable  business.  Many  who  started  dairying  a  few 
years  ago  with  nothing  are  now  rich  men,  with  land  and  stock,  fast 
becoming  the  leaders  of  their  communities.  There  is  plenty  of 
opportunity  for  California  boys  who  are  not  afraid  to  get  up  early  in 
the  morning  and  work  hard,  and  who  are  willing  to  learn  how  to 
take  the  best  care  of  the  stock  and  stick  to  the  business.  The  best 
of  it  is  that  one  can  start  in  a  small  way,  without  much  money. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Why  has  the  Coast  Region  been  the  most  important  dairying  section? 
(2)  Is  the  industry  growing  in  other  regions  ?  Why  ?  (3)  Describe  the  alfalfa. 
(4)  Tell  what  the  farmer  does  with  his  milk.  (5)  Does  California  produce  enough 
butter  to  supply  her  own  markets  ? 

Agriculture 

Agriculture  is  by  far  the  most  important  industry  in  the  state. 
Agricultural  products  are  ahead  of  those  of  any  other  industry. 
Cities,  railroads,  and  business  depend  upon  the  farms.  The  future 
prosperity  of  the  people  rests  upon  the  soil.  Seeing  this,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  remember  that  only  fifty  years  ago  it  was  believed  quite 
generally  that  the  country  was  practically  worthless  for  agriculture, 
and  that  as  soon  as  the  gold  was  exhausted,  the  greater  part  of  the 
population  would  go  away,  leaving  only  a  barren,  hopeless  waste 
behind. 

Here  is  a  word  picture  of  the  agriculture  in  one  of  the  large 
valleys  of  the  Coast  ranges ;  "  It  is  a  pleasant  sight  to  look  down 
into  one  of  these  rich  valleys  from  the  hilltops  surrounding  it. 
First,  right  beneath  us  are  the  rolling  foothills  where  we  see  herds 


AGRICULTUBE  693 

of  cattle  or  flocks  of  sheep.  Just  beyond  are  vineyards  and  a  great 
wine  cellar,  half  of  it  built  into  the  hillside.  Farther  out  stretches 
the  valley  floor,  dotted  with  its  farmhouses.  Spread  out  around 
the  farmhouses  are  waving  cornfields,  hayfields  in  which  men  are 
at  work,  wide  checkerboard  blocks  of  grain  just  turning  yellow, 
orchards  with  the  fruit  pickers  busy  under  the  trees,  and  hop  fields 
overrun  with  vines  trained  high  on  wires  stretched  from  the  tops  of 
poles.  Over  near  the  center  of  the  valley  is  a  busy  little  city.  We 
can  see  its  roofs  and  steeples  half  hidden  by  the  shade  trees  lining  its 
streets.  Along  the  roads  from  all  directions  farm  wagons  are  crawl- 
ing toward  the  town,  carrying  their  fruit  to  the  canneries,  and  their 
hay  and  grain  and  butter  to  the  railroads  for  shipment  to  the  big 
cities.  A  few  years  ago,  when  our  fathers  were  boys,  this  valley 
was  all  one  open  field  with  herds  of  wild-looking  cattle  roaming 
through  it,  for  it  was  then  nothing  but  a  great  Spanish  grant,  and 
one  man  owned  it  all.  Now  it  raises  enough  to  feed  many  thousand 
people,  and  its  products  are  so  varied  that  we  wonder  how  one  cli- 
mate and  one  soil  can  produce  them  all.  We  are  glad  when  we  hear 
that  many  of  the  farmers  and  business  men  who  have  made  these 
farms  and  built  this  town  are  well  to  do;  that  they  have  good 
homes,  some  money  in  the  bank,  and  their  boys  and  girls  in  the 
schools.    We  feel  that  they  have  deserved  to  succeed." 

Poultry  and  eggs  for  market  are  raised  throughout  the  state ;  but 
Petaluma  is  famous  as  the  most  important  center  of  this  industry. 


Fig.  580. 

A  poultry  farm  near  Petaluma.    Notice  the  number  of  chicken  houses  in  which  the  chickens 

roost  and  where  they  lay  their  eggs. 

For  miles  around  Petaluma  stretch  the  poultry  farms  (Fig.  580), 
each  a  good-sized  city  of  chickens.  Hundreds  of  chicken  houses 
may  be  seen  from  the  road,  all  of  them  spick  and  span  in   clean 


594 


GEOGBAPHT  OF  GALtFOBNIA 


whitewash.  Thousands  of  chickens  (Fig.  581)  are  scattered  over 
the  fields.  These  chickens  are  hatched  in  incubators,  several  hun- 
dred at  a  time.  Then 
they  are  turned  into 
brooders  (Fig.  582), 
where  they  are  kept 
warm  and  given  special 
food  until  they  are 
able  to  go  out  and 
scratch  for  themselves. 
The  poultry  man  is  al- 
ways trying  to  improve 
his  stock  by  keeping 
only  the  best  layers. 
Careful  chicken-raisers 
find  that  their  hens  pay 
them  a  dollar  a  year  each  in  clear  profits.  You  can  see  what  such  an 
income  would  mean  to  the  owner  of  ten  thousand  chickens.  Nearly 
every  boy  and  girl  in  California,  save  in  a  few  of  the  larger  cities, 
is  able  to  have  a  small  flock  of  chickens  in  the  back  yard.  If  you 
find  out  what  sort  of  chickens  to  get  and  then  learn  to  take  good 


Fig.  581. 

flock  of  white  leghorn  hens.  They  did  their  share 
toward  producing  the  4,422,968  dozen  eggs  furnished 
the  markets  of  the  state  from  Petaluma  alone.  To 
supply  the  market  in  1907,  10,854,000  dozen  eggs  were 
shipped  into  the  state  from  the  East. 


Fig.  582. 

Little   chickens —  "  Just    out !"— Hatched    in  an  incubator.    This  shows  them    in  the 
brooder,  their  foster  mother ;  their  empty  shells  are  in  the  trays  above. 


care  of  them,  you  will  soon  have  fresh  eggs  of  your  own  for  break- 
fast, and  perhaps  an  account  of  your  own  in  the  bank.  At  any  rate, 
you  will  be  learning  something  worth  knowing  about  the  most 
general  and  one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the  state. 


AOBICULTUBB 


695 


In  the  Great  Valley  Region  and  in  the  large  valleys  of  Southern 
California  the  chief  agriculture  of  the  past  has  been  the  growing  of 
grain  (Fig.  583)  and  live  stock :  wheat  (Fig.  141)  and  barley,  horses, 
(Fig.  584),  cattle,  and  sheep  (Fig.  585).     The  land  was  owned  in 


large  ranches  (Figs.  586,  587),  from 
a  thousand  acres  or  less  to  a  hun- 
dred thousand  acres  or  more  in 
each,  often  so  large  that  it  was  a 
day's  journey  to  ride  over  one  of 
them.  The  stock  was  turned  loose 
to  shift  for  itself  on  the  range;  the 
grain  land  was  lightly  scratched  on 
the  surface  by  gang  plows,  and 
depended  upon  the  scanty  rains  for 
the  crop.  This  was  called  "  dry 
ranching."  Under  this  system  Cali- 
fornia became  one  of  the  great 
wheat  regions  of  the  world,  shipping  wheat  and  flour  everywhere. 
But  the  poor  cultivation  and  the  continual  repetition  of  the  same 
crop  exhausted  the  soil,  and  a  change  became  necessary.  The  "  dry 
ranch  "  system  is  changing  to  intensive  farming  or  diversified  farm- 
ing. This  requires  the  breaking  up  of  the  great  land  grants  into 
small  holdings,  the  practice  of  irrigation,  and  a  much  denser  popu- 
lation. Vegetables,  alfalfa,  pumpkins  (Fig.  588),  hogs,  milch  cows, 
poultry,  berries,  fruits,  beans  (Fig.  589),  sugar  beets  (Fig,  590),  take 
the  place  of  the  dry  grain  fields  and  bare  ranges  of  the  old  system. 


Fig.  583. 
Hauling  the  grain  to  market.  Four 
wagons,  about  250  sacks  of  grain. 
One  man  driving  with  "jerk  line"  a 
twelve  mule  team.  What  else  do  you 
see  in  the  picture  ? 


Fig.  584. 
A  bunch  of  fine  horses  feeding  in  alfalfa  pasture. 


Fig.  585. 
Sheep  with  their  lambs  in  a  valley  pasture. 


Fig.  586. 

One  of  the  largest  ranches  of  Southern  California,  growing  beans,  hay,  and  grain.  Notice 
the  beautiful  country  home,  supplied  with  electric  lights,  gas,  telephone,  and  all  modern 
conveniences,  large  grassy  lawn,  flowers,  and  shrubbery  about  the  house;  large  fields 
^f  beans  in  the  distance. 

696 


AGRICULTURE 


697 


Fig.  587. 
Teams  of  a  large  ranch  about  to  leave  for  work  in  the  fields.  The  foreman  of  the  ranch 
in  the  wagon  in  the  foreground ;  barns,  blacksmith  shop,  tool  house,  on  the  left ;  ranch 
house  in  the  distance  ;  wagon  and  implement  shed  on  the  right.  Notice  how  clean  the 
barnyard  is  kept  and  everything  in  order.  The  men  have  good  clean  quarters  and  are 
fed  the  best  the  market  affords.  The  horses  and  other  stock  are  well  fed  and  handled 
with  great  kindness  and  care.  Some  of  the  finest  work  horses  in  the  state  are  on  this 
ranch.  To  abuse  or  neglect  any  of  the  stock  means  loss  of  position.  Why  is  kindness 
to  stock  demanded  ? 

This  means  greater  opportunities 
for  the  farmer.  For  any  one  who 
will  mix  brains  with  his  work,  the 
intensive  small  farming  of  these 
great  valleys  offers  rich  rewards. 
Twenty  acres  of  good  land  well 
irrigated  and  well  managed  will 
keep  a  family  and  make  it  prosper- 
ous. On  many  and  many  a  little 
farm  the  owner  clears  a  hundred 
dollars  per  acre  each  year.  There 
are  vast  areas  of  land  yet  to  be 
irrigated,  divided  into  small  tracts, 
and  made  into  homes.  The  future 
wealth  and  prosperity  of  our  state 
will  largely  depend  upon  the  fruits 
of  these  irrigated  farms  in  the  in- 

°  .  Fig.  588. 

terior     valleys.      Here     is    a     great  «<  some  pumpkins "  in  California. 


598 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


chance  for  boys  and  girls  who  will  learn  how  to  take  it.     It  offers  a 
much  safer,  happier,  and  more  independent  life  than  a  hand-to-mouth 


K      ^ 

A 

1 
1 

Fig.  589. 

Thrashing  beans  in  Ventura  County.  The  lima  bean  is  grown  almost  exclusively  in  Southern 

California.    Hundreds  of  carloads  are  shipped  to  eastern  markets  each  year. 

existence  on  an  uncertain  salary  in  a  town  or  city.  These  small 
farms  and  denser  population  make  possible  all  the  comforts  and 
conveniences  of  life,  and  bring  increased  social  advantages.     They 


Fig.  590. 
Harvesting  sugar  beets.    After  the  beets  are  removed,  cattle  or  sheep  are  turned  into  the 
field  to  feed  upon  the  beet  tops.    After  the  beets  are  run  through  a  beet-sugar  factory 
(Fig.  146) ,  and  the  sugar  extracted,  the  pulp  of  the  beet  is  put  into  silos  and  fed  to  stock. 

bring  well-built  houses,  modern  plumbing,  electric  lighting,  free 
rural  mail  delivery,  telephones,  trolley  cars,  daily  baker  and  butcher 
wagons,  trim  lawns,  fine  roads,  good  schools.     With  all  this  is  the 


FRUIT  GROWING  599 

pure  air,  the  bright  sunshine,  and  the  wholesome  labor  of  the  country. 
Does  it  not  look  attractive  when  compared  to  the  crowded,  unhealthy, 
and  anxious  lives  of  most  people  in  the  cities  ? 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  How  are  the  cities  dependent  on  the  farms  ?  How  is  the  opposite  of  this 
true  ?  (2)  Why  did  the  early  settlers  think  the  soil  worthless  ?  How  has  this 
belief  been  refuted?  (3)  Give  in  your  own  words  the  word  picture  in  the  text. 
(4)  For  what  is  Petalum a  famous?  (5)  Describe  a  chicken  ranch.  (6)  What  was 
the  chief  agriculture  of  the  Valley  Region  in  the  past?  (7)  Why  did  it  have  to 
change  ?    What  is  it  now  ?     (8)  Compare  city  with  country  life. 


Fruit  Growing 

The  greatest  development  of  intensive  farming  has  been  and  will 
continue  to  be  in  the  growing  of  fruits  (Fig.  591).     This  industry 


Fig.  591. 
Looking  across  Santa  Clara  Valley ;  famous  for  its  fruits,  beautiful  homes,  and  fertile  soil. 


requires  brains  and  education,  and  it  yields  nich  rewards.     No  other 
state  can  here  compete  with  CaKfornia, 


Fig.  692. 

Hemet  Dam,  in  the  San  Jacinto  Mountains.  Thus  the  winter  rains  and  snows  in  the  mouu- 
tains  may  be  stored  and  used  in  summer  to  raise  orchards  and  vineyards  in  the  thirsty 
valleys  far  below. 


Fig.  593. 
Wrapping  oranges  by  machinery  and  packing  them  in  boxes  for  shipment. 


FRUIT  GROWING 


601 


Wherever  we  go,  north,  south,  east,  west,  up  into  Canada  or 
down  into  Mexico,  we  find  California  fruits  in  the  market.  They 
are  larger  and  handsomer  and  earlier  than  any  others. 

Most  important  of  all  are  the  citrus  fruits,  the  orange,  lemon, 
lime,  and  pomelo  or  grape  fruit.  The  center  of  the  orange  industry 
is  Riverside  County  (Fig.  592),  which  ships  over  6000  carloads 
yearly.  San  Bernardino  (Fig.  572)  and  Los  Angeles  counties 
also  ship  thousands  of  car- 
loads. Each  car  holds  about 
300  boxes  and  each  box 
over  100  oranges.  The 
finest  orange  is  called  the 
Washington  Navel.  Thou- 
sands of  people  are  engaged 
in  raising  it,  and  other 
thousands  are  packing  it 
(Fig.  593)  and  selling  it. 
It  makes  the  chief  industry 
of  Southern  California.  It 
is  a  splendid  fruit,  large, 
high  colored,  sweet,  and 
juicy,  with  a  delicious 
flavor.  Moreover,  it  is 
entirely  seedless  and  is  so 
firm  and  strong  that  it 
stands  shipment  for  thou- 
sands of  miles.  Important 
as  it  is  now,  it  was  dis- 
covered almost  by  accident. 
Over  thirty-five  years  ago 


Fig.  594. 

One  of  the  original  navel  orange  trees  brought  from 
Brazil  in  1873.  It  was  transplanted  to  the  court- 
yard of  the  Glenwood  Tavern  at  Riverside  by 
President  Roosevelt  in  1903. 


Mrs.  Tibbetts  wrote  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington 
asking  for  some  trees  that  would  probably  grow  well  in  her  garden 
in  the  little  new  settlement.  It  happened  that  the  Department  had 
on  hand  half  a  dozen  orange  trees  that  had  been  sent  up  from  Bahia 
in  Brazil,  wrapped  in  wet  moss.  Two  of  them  had  died,  but  the 
other  four  were  sent  to  Mrs.  Tibbetts.  She  planted  them,  but  one 
died  from  lack  of  water,  and  another  was  eaten  up  by  a  cow.  The 
two  remaining  struggled  along  for  several  years  until  they  bore  some 
fruit.  Immediately  the  oranges  attracted  attention,  so  handsome  they 
were,  so  delicious,  so  free  from  seed,  so  firm  for  shipping.     From 


602 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  GALIFOBNIA 


these  two  trees  came  all  the  navel  oranges  in  California.     The  parent 
trees  (Fig.  594)  are  still  alive,  carefully  attended  and  protected  by 


Fig.  595. 


Copyright,  1903,  by  Turrill  &  Miller. 


Luther  Burbank  and  a  bit  of  his  experimental  garden,  Santa  Rosa,  showing  one  of  his 
wonderful  creations,  spineless  cactus. 

iron  bars.     They   still   bear  abundant  fruit,  and   may  be  seen  by 
visitors.     In  the  immediate  neighborhood  are  twenty  million  dollars* 


Fig.  596. 
An  orange  grove  at  Fair  Oaks,  Sacramento  County. 


FRUIT  GBOWING^ 


603 


worth  of  navel  orange  groves  (Figs.  572,  573).     What  great  results 
have  come  from  this  small  beginning  !      It  makes  us  wonder  if  there 


■■  \^^sr^''- 

"■^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

'j^^m 

^-^^^T 

flB 

....                  .  ... 

""^"'■'•■*'' 

Fig.  597. 

The  Limoiieira  Ranch,  Ventura  County.  350  acres  in  lemon  trees  in  full  bearing;  575 
acres  in  walnuts;  the  reservoir  in  the  foreground  and  the  packing  house  and  barns  in 
the  distance. 

are  not  other  fruits  and  food  plants  in  far-off  corners  of  the  earth  that 
would  be  of  great  value  here. 


Fig.  598. 
Lemon  picking,  Limoneira  ilanch. 


Fig.  599. 

Interior  of  packing  house,  showing  process  of  packing  lemons  for  market,  Limoneira 

Ranch. 


Fig.  600. 
A  prone  orchard  in  bloom,  Sonoma  County. 


FRUIT  GROWING 


605 


Luther  Burbank  (Fig.  595),  one  of  the  most  famous  men  of  the 
world,  has  added  much  to  the  pleasure,  comfort,  and  profit  of  the 
world  by  his  new  creations 
of  flowers,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables, such  as  the  Shasta 
daisy,  the  spineless  cactus, 
and  the  Burbank  potato. 
We  may  well  be  proud  of 
the  fact  that  Luther  Bur- 
bank is  a  Californian  and 
that  his  great  work  has  all 
been  done  at  his  home  in 
our  own  state.  One  of  the 
large  schools  (Fig.  625)  in 
Santa  Rosa,  his  home  town, 
is  named  the  Burbank 
School.  He  is  always  in- 
terested in  schools  and 
children. 

It  is  not  alone  in  the 
south  that  oranges  are 
grown.  One  tenth  of  the 
citrus  fruits  are  grown  in 
Central  and  Northern  Cali- 
fornia. In  Tulare  County 
is  a  fine  orange  section,  where  the  fruit  ripens  earlier  than  in  South- 
ern California.  Near  Sacra- 
mento (Fig.  596),  and  at 
Oroville  too,  oranges  are 
successfully  grown,  and 
even  as  far  north  as  Chico. 
Lemons  are  second  of 
the  citrus  fruits  in  impor- 
tance, and  they  are  grown 
in  the  same  localities  as 
oranges  (Fig.  597).  They 
can  be  picked  (Fig.  598) 
every  month  in  the  year, 
Pjq  gQ2.  ^^^  ^^  is  common   to   find 

Hops  at  their  full  growth.  ripe  f ruit,  green  fruit,  and 


Fig.  601. 
Flaming  Tokay  table  grapes,  Sacramento  County. 


606 


GEOGBAPHT  OF  CALIFOBNIA 


blossoms  on  the  trees  at  the  same  time.     The  yearly  output  (Fig. 

599)    is   about    5000    carloads.      Almonds   and  walnuts  are  grown 

extensively  in  various 
parts  of  the  state.  The 
deciduous  fruits,  that 
is,  those  whose  trees 
shed  their  leaves  in 
winter,  are  nearly  all 
grown  in  Central  and 
Northern  California. 

Many  places  have 
become  famous  for  cer- 
tain fruits.  Thus  Fresno 
for  raisins  (Fig.  145); 
San  Jose  and  Santa  Rosa 


Fig.  603. 

Greystone  winery,  Napa  County.    Said  to  be  the 
largest  winery  in  the  world. 


for  prunes   (Fig.    600) ;    Watson ville  and  Salinas  for  apples  ;  San 
Joaquin  and  Tulare  for  table  grapes  (Fig.  601)  ;    Sacramento  for 


^ 

HH^^''           ■'»^-      '"    ^m' 

m^ 

wm 

^iK-^f^'^^r^^^H^^^B^ 

i 

im^^gs^,;, 

'^^^»^ 
J^^^^ 

*'^^^j^^^^^^^^^ 

WBafcA-^K" 

'':■-■': 

)kmmmBi^ 

Fig.  604. 
Drying  prunes,  San  Joaquin  Valley. 


strawberries,  table  grapes,  and  hops  (Fig.  602);  Santa  Rosa  and  Napa 
for  wine  grapes  (Fig.  603);  Vacaville  for  cherries.  Fresno  sends  out 
2000  carloads  of  raisins  per  year,  enough  to  supply  a  pound  box  to 


FBUIT  GBOWING 


607 


every  boy  and  girl,  man  and  woman,  in  the  United  States.     There 
are  3000  carloads  of  dried  prunes  (Fig.  604)  shipped  every  year  all 


Fig.  605. 
An  avenue  in  the  Sylmar  olive  grove,  Los  Angeles  County. 

over  the  United   States.     The  Hume  prune  orchard  in    the  Santa 
Clara  Valley  has  300,000  trees.     Dried  peaches,  pears,  and  apricots 


Fig.  606. 

An  apiary  in  the  foothills  of  Southern  California.  The  bees  gather  honey  from  the  neigh- 
boring orchards,  bean  fields,  and  mountain  shrubbery.  Sage  and  wild  buckwheat  are 
considered  the  best  honey  plants.  The  bees  of  California  gather  about  four  thousand 
tons  of  honey  per  year.  Each  hive  is  called  a  colony.  The  bee  industry  is  a  very  inter- 
esting study.    Look  it  up  and  learn  what  you  can  abom  it. 

are   important  exports.     Olive  culture    (Fig.    605)    is    one  of   the 
oldest  fruit  industries  of  the  state.     San  Diego  leads  in  the  produc- 


608  GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

tion  of  olives  and  olive  oil,  although  there  are  large  orchards  in 
various  other  counties,  and  every  year  adds  to  the  number  of  trees. 
While  honey  is  produced  in  all  of  the  principal  valleys,  the  great 
supply  for  the  market  comes  from  the  southern  part  of  the  state 
(Fig.  606).  Each  of  these  industries  affords  material  for  study, 
inquiry,  and  travel.  It  is  real  geography  v^ork  for  girls  and  boys 
to  find  out  about  these  interesting  things  for  themselves.     . 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  What  is  the  most  important  class  of  fruits  in  California  ?  (2)  For  what 
is  Riverside  County  famous  ?  (3)  Tell  the  story  of  the  parent  orange  tree.  (4)  In 
what  other  parts  of  the  state  are  oranges  grown?  (5)  How  are  new  trees  started 
if  the  orange  has  no  seed?  (6)  Describe  the  lemon  industry.  (7)  Find  out  all 
you  can  about  Luther  Burbank,  (8)  What  are  deciduous  fruits,  and  where  are 
they  grown?  How  do  the  trees  differ  from  citrus  fruit  trees?  (9)  Mention 
several  towns  famous  for  certain  kinds  of  fruit.  (10)  Tell  of  the  raisin  and  prune 
crops.  (11)  Which  county  leads  in  the  production  of  olives  and  olive  oil? 
(12)  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  honey  industry. 

Forests  and  Lumber 

One  of  the  greatest  of  the  resources  of  the  state  is  the  forest  and 
its  lumber,  obtained  from  the  redwoods  of  the  Coast  and  the  pines 
of  the  Sierras.  Our  methods  of  lumbering  are  wasteful  and  extrava- 
gant. After  the  trees  are  felled,  the  whole  country  is  often  burned 
over  (opp.  p.  575),  to  get  rid  of  the  bark  on  the  logs,  the  saplings,  and 
all  undergrowth,  so  as  to  get  the  logs  more  easily  to  mill.  At  the  mill 
(  Fig.  608)  a  great  fire  burns,  night  and  day,  to  get  rid  of  the  waste 
lumber,  the  slabs,  blocks,  and  short  pieces  that  are  only  in  the  way. 
Some  of  these  fires  have  burned  constantly  for  twenty  or  thirty  years. 
Think  of  the  mountains  of  fuel  they  have  destroyed.  This  waste 
lumber  is  not  salable  just  now,  and  it  would  not  pay  to  ship  it  to 
market ;  but  later,  when  it  will  be  valuable  and  sorely  needed  by 
the  people,  it  cannot  be  recovered. 

One  of  the  things  our  rich  and  extravagant  country  must  learn 
to  do  is  to  care  for  and  rightly  use  its  resources  and  not  allow  them 
to  be  squandered.  If  we  don't  wish  to  wake  up  too  late  and  find 
our  forests  all  gone,  we  must  find  ways  to  compel  them  to  be  used 
slowly  and  carefully,  so  as  to  let  the  young  trees  continually  take 
the  place  of  the  old  ones  as  they  are  cut  down.  The  forest  policy  of 
our  government  is  one  of  the  things  that  all  young  Americans  ought 
to  watch  and  think  about.     There  will  be  useful  work  for  many  boys 


Fig.  607. 
Cone  oak  grove,  near  Red  Bluff,  Tehama  County. 


Fk;.  (;(KS. 
Mill  of  the  Pacific  Lumber  Company  at  Scotia,  Humboldt  County.    Usual  output,  200,000  ft 

per  day. 
609 


610 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


as  foresters  and  rangers  (Fig.  554),  in  the  future,  so   it  is  worth 
looking  up. 

The  redwood  forests  grow  down  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  reach- 
ing back  into  the  lower  slopes  and  river  valleys  of  the  outer  Coast 
Range.    They  originally  extended  from  Monterey  County  northward 

into  Oregon,  but  those  of 
the  central  coast  are  nearly 
all  gone.  One  splendid 
grove.  Big  Basin  (Fig.  609), 
in  Santa  Cruz  County,  still 
remains.  It  was  bought 
from  private  ownership  by 
the  state,  and  is  set  apart 
as  a  public  park  for  our 
people  and  bur  visitors  to 
look  at  and  enjoy  while 
they  camp  out  or  travel 
about  to  recreate  them- 
selves with  natural  scenery 
and  outdoor  air.  The  trees 
in  this  park  are  very  tempt- 
ing to  lumber  dealers,  and 
the  constant  watchfulness 
of  all  good  citizens  is 
necessary  if  we  would  pre- 
serve the  grove  in  the 
future.     Remember  this. 

The  main  part  of  the 
redwood  forests,  however, 
are  now  along  the  north  coast,  in  Mendocino,  Humboldt,  and  Del 
Norte  counties.  They  are  the  wonder  of  the  world.  The  vast 
trunks  stand  close  together,  towering  like  columns  to  the  sky,  300 
feet  high,  10  to  20  feet  in  diameter,  several  thousand  years  old. 
The  stagecoach  rolls  silently  over  the  needle-strewn  roads,  and  the 
passengers  are  awed  by  the  solemn  twilight  under  the  great  trees. 
Ferns  and  bushes  cover  all  the  ground  beneath. 

These  forests  have  mostly  passed  from  private  owners  into  the 
possession  of  great  lumber  corporations.  It  is  estimated  that  they  will 
all  be  cut  down  in  thirty  years.  The  method  is  to  chop  down 
(Fig.  139)  the  trees  or  saw  them  down ;  then  drag  out  the  logs  by 


Fig.  609. 

On  the  road  to  Governor's  Camp,  California  Red- 
wood Park. 


FORESTS  AND  LUMBER 


611 


long  wire  cables  (Fig.  140),  extending  through  the  forest,  up  hill 
and  down  dale,  for  a  mile  or  more.  The  cable  is  pulled  by  a  donkey 
engine.  The  logs  are  then  loaded  on  railroad  cars  (Fig.  143)  and 
hauled  to  the  mills.  The  mills  are  often  beside  the  salt  water,  so 
that  the  boards  and  shingles  can  pass  directly  from  the  saws  to 
the  ships  that  are  waiting  to  carry  lumber  to  the  ends  of  the  earth 


Fig.  610. 
Baptist  Church,  Santa  Rosa.    Built  with  lumber  from  a  single  redwood  tree. 


and  to  the  distant  islands  of  the  sea.  Sometimes  a  single  tree  will 
make  a  wliole  train  load  (Fig.  143)  of  logs;  sometimes  the  lumber 
from  one  tree  will  build  a  big  church  (Fig.  610). 

The  pine  forests  are  more  widely  distributed  than  the  redwoods 
(Fig.  152),  covering  the  mountains  in  the  higher  Coast  Ranges,  the 
Sierras,  and  the  few  highest  mountains  of  Southern  California.  The 
sugar  pine  is  the  most  valuable  tree,  making  fine,  clear  lumber  for 
doors  and  window  sashes.  The  yellow  pine  yields  larger  quantities 
than  any  other.  Some  fir  and  cedar  is  used,  too.  The  methods  of 
lumbering  are  similar  to  those  of  the  redwoods,  but  when  the  lumber 
comes  from  the  mills,  it  must  be  hauled  down  from  the  mountains 


612 


GEOOBAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 


with  teams,  or  sent 
down  in  great  flumes 
carrying  a  swift  stream 
of  water.  Then  it  is 
distributed  to  the  whole 
country  by  the  rail- 
roads. The  lumber 
products  rank  second 
in  the  industries  of 
the  state.  In  Sonoma 
County  is  a  petrified 
forest  (Fig.  611)  made 
up  of  trees  which  fell 
ages  ago  and  have 
turned  into  stone. 
There    are    plenty    of 

most  interesting  things  suggested  here  to  read  about,  hear  stories 

about,  or  to  go  and  see. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Tell  why  the  lumbering  method  is  wasteful.  (2)  What  kind  of  trees  are 
found  near  the  coast  ?  Tell  of  the  former  extent  of  these  forests.  (3)  Tell  some- 
thing of  the  Big  Basin.  (4)  Describe  the  forests  of  the  northern  coast  counties. 
(5)  Describe  the  method  of  getting  the  logs  from  the  forests.  (6)  Tell  how  the 
logs  are  made  into  lumber  and  the  lumber  delivered  to  market.  (7)  Where  are 
the  pine  forests  found  ?     (8)  Find  out  what  you  can  of  the  petrified  forest. 


Fig.  611. 

A  view  of  a  petrified  giant  of  the  forest  —  "  stone  dead." 

Forty-five  acres  of  this  large  tract  of  forest  near  Santa 

Rosa  is  covered  with  petcified  trees,  some  twenty-four 

feet  in  circumference  and  three  hundred  feet  in  length. 


Mineral  Products 

There  is  a  very  great  variety  of  mineral  products  found  within 
the  state  (Fig.  612),  more  than  fifty  in  number.  Among  the  metals 
are  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  quicksilver,  iron,  tin,  antimony,  plati- 
num. Among  building  materials  are  granite,  sandstone,  marble, 
brick  clay,  slate,  lime,  cement,  asphaltum,  bituminous  rock.  Among 
the  gem  stones  are  tourmaline,  opal,  beryl,  diamond,  garnet,  tur- 
quoise. Among  the  fuels  are  coal,  natural  gas,  and  petroleum. 
Gold  is  naturally  the  most  important  product,  since  California  is 
known  as  the  Golden  State. 

Dredger  mining  is  a  new  and  profitable  way  of  extracting  gold 
from  the  valleys  at  the  base  of  the  Sierras,  along  the  streams  from 
the  Mother  Lode.  A  great  machine  is  built  upon  a  scow  (Fig.  613) 
which  floats  on  an  artificial  pond  of  water  fed  by  a  ditch.     This  oper- 


Mineral  Map  of  California  ' 

Showing:  the  Approximate  Locations  of  all  the  Crlnelpal 

MINERAL  DEPOSITS 

TOGETHER  WITH 

STATISTICS  OF  MINERAL  ERODCCTrOTT 

ISSUED  BY 

THE  CALIFORNIA  STATE  MINISG  BUREAU 

Fenj  Bunding  San  Fnmdsoo 

LEWIS  E.  AXJBURT 

State  MloeodogtBt 

1907 


TOTAL 

PRODUCTION 
FOR  1906 

$18,732,452 

$5,522,712 

$712,334 

$9,238,020 

$109,489 

$61,600 


i^ Principal  Gold  Producing  Areas 
®    Copper  Deposits 
A  Quicksilver  Deposits 
■f  Oil  Fields 
^  Gas  Wells 
+  Coal  Mines 

SALINE   DEPOSITS 

®  BoraxCCrude) 

»  Salt  ' 

^  SodaCCrude) 

o  Towns 


PRODUCTION  IN  1908. 
Total  value  Mineral  Production  for  Year  846,776,085 
-^  ,_.     )  u   o   M   O  \    '■°*"  ^^"*  MetalUo  Substances,  inc.  Precious  Metals,  26,156,709 
'■'"— 'y 'v  ..>^  N^     Total  value  Precious  Metals,  |1 9,550,282 

S^f    ^  >.^       ^— -"S.      Total  value  Non-MetalUo  Bubstances,  12,589,984 
-•'  \  /       X  -  •     \       Total  value  Hydrocarbons  and  Gases,  110,170,273 

Total  value  Struotural  Materials,  87,859420 

Total  Qold  Product  &om  1843  to  January  1, 1907. 


Fig.  612. 


«X~A« 


«]« 


614 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


ates  a  chain  of  heavy  iron  buckets  which  bring  up  the  sand,  rocks, 
and  gravel  from  below  even  to  a  depth  of  sixty  feet,  scraping  the  solid 
bed  rock  below  the  gravels.  The  buckets  empty  their  load  upon  the 
scow,  where  the  gold  is  washed  out  in  sluices,  the  same  as  with  the 
gravel  in  ordinary  placer  mining.  The  rocks,  from  as  big  as  your 
fist  up  to  the  size  of  a  tub,  are  dumped  aside  by  the  dredger;  the 
sand  and  soil  settles  down  in  the  pond  and  is  covered  deeply  by  the 
rocks,  perhaps  changing  a  farm  or  vineyard  into  a  desolate  waste  of 
bare  stones.  The  dredger  with  its  pond  advances  slowly  as  it  works, 
eating  up  the  country  as  it  goes.     The  business  is  so  profitable  that 


Fig.  613. 

A  dredger  on  the  Feather  River  near  Oroville  mining  for  gold.  One  of  these  modern  gold 
dredgers  costs  from  $150,000  to  $200,000  to  huild.  As  there  are  many  of  these  machines 
at  work  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  a  large  amount  of  gold  must  he  produced  to 
warrant  the  expenditure  of  so  large  a  sum  of  money  in  building  machinery  to  handle  it. 


the  dredger  men  can  afford  to  pay  enormous  prices  for  the  orchards 
and  fields  that  are  underlain  by  rich  gravels.  Fortunes  are  often 
made,  and  many  men  are  given  work  for  a  time ;  but  the  country 
worked  over  is  destroyed.  No  longer  will  it  support  people  or  keep 
up  the  strength  of  the  state.  We  must  protect  our  soil,  for  that  is 
what  our  country  is  made  of.  We  must  in  future  have  this  work 
done  so  that  the  fertile  soil  is  left  above,  the  barren  rocks  below, 
even  if  the  profits  are  not  so  sudden  or  so  large. 

Copper  (Fig.  614)  is  smelted  from  its  ores  in  Shasta  County, 
where  there  are  the  largest  and  most  important  mining  works  in  the 
state.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  many  places,  but  the  lack  of  suitable  fuel 
W  thus  far  prevented  the  building  of  iron  works.     Lead  and  silver 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 


615 


occur  in  the  mountains  of  the  desert  region  in  Inyo  County.  Quick- 
silver is  found  in  the  Coast  Ranges,  in  Napa,  Santa  Clara,  San  Luis 
Obispo,  and  San  Benito  counties.  No  other  state  in  the  Union  ap- 
proaches California's  output  of  this  metal.  Brick  clay,  marble, 
granite,  and  lime  are  well  distributed  all  over  the  state.  Asphaltum 
and  its  derivative,  bituminous  rock,  are  found  in  the  mountains  near 


Fig.  614. 

Copper  smelter  at  Coram,  Shasta  County.  Capacity,  1800  tons  per  day.  There  is  blocked 
out  at  the  present  time  in  the  Shasta  County  copper  ore  fields  alone,  two  hundred  and 
fifty  million  dollars'  worth  of  ore. 

the  coast  in  Southern  California,  associated  with  the  petroleum  fields. 
Bituminous  rock  is  a  sandstone  saturated  with  asphaltum  used  in 
paving  and  road  building. 

In  San  Diego  and  Riverside  Counties  are  mines  of  beautiful  crys- 
tals, called  gem  stones.  They  are  hard  and  brittle,  difficult  to  cut 
and  polish;  but  their  colors  are  so  exquisite,  their  luster  so  brilliant, 
that  they  are  very  valuable  as  jewels.  Tourmalines  are  of  green  and 
red  tints;  beryls  of  greenish  shades;  kunzite  is  a  recently  discovered 
stone  named  for  Mr.  Kunz,  the  gem  expert  at  Tiffany's.  It  is  of  a 
delicate  lilac  and  almost  as  brilliant  as  a  diamond.  Opals  and  tur- 
quoise are  found  in  the  deserts  of  San  Bernardino  County.  Dia- 
monds are  found  in  the  gravels  of  Butte  County. 

A  rather  poor  variety  of  coal,  called  lignite,  is  found  about  the  base 
of  Mt.  Diablo,  and  also  in  the  coast  mountains  of  Southern  California. 
Some  bituminous  coal  is  found  in  Monterey  County. 


616 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


The  lack  of  good  coal  and  the  expense  of  bringing  it  from  foreign 
places  by  ship  or  rail  has  prevented  the  development  of  manufac- 
tures in  the  state.  This  lack,  however,  is  being  made  up  by  the  dis- 
covery and  development  of  great  oil  fields,  in  Fresno,  Kern  (Fig.  615), 
Los  Angeles,  Santa  Barbara,  and  Ventura  counties. 
The  invention  of  oil-burning  locomotives,  furnaces, 
and  stoves  makes  fuel  oil  one  of  the  great  staples 
of  the  Coast.  Pipe  lines  bring  the  oil  to  the  seashore, 
whence  it  is  shipped  to  foreign  and  domestic  ports; 


Fig.  615. 

A  view  of  a  portion  of  Kern  County's  great  oil  fields  which  extend  for  miles  along  Kem 
River.  There  are  many  hundreds  of  oil  derricks  such  as  appear  above,  and  great  storage 
tanks  built  of  earth  containing  thousands  of  gallons  of  the  crude,  black  oil  pumped  from 
the  wells ;  oil  is  loaded  into  tank  cars  by  gravity  for  shipment,  while  the  waste  product 
runs  into  "  sump  "  holes  and  is  burned. 


or  perhaps  it  is  refined  before  shipping.  A  great  pipe  line  leads 
from  the  Kern  County  oil  fields  nearly  300  miles  to  Point  Rich- 
mond on  San  Francisco  Bay,  where  the  refineries  (Fig.  616)  of 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  are  located.  By  refining  crude  oil  is 
meant  its  separation  by  distilling  into  its  constituent  parts,  such 
as  asphaltum,  paraffin,  gasoline,  benzine,  naphtha,  kerosene,  dis- 
tillate, lubricating  oils,  etc.  Petroleum  is  second  only  to  gold  in 
value  of  mineral  products,  and  doubtless  it  will  soon  take  first 
place.  It  is  of  enormous  value  to  the  state  already,  although  we 
have  hardly  begun  to  know  how  to  use  it  or  appreciate  it  as  yet. 
It  is  a  much  cheaper  and  more  convenient  source  of  power  than 
coal.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  alone 
saves  over  five  million  dollars  per  year  by  changing  from  coal-burning 
to  oil-burning  locomotives;  and  that  our  oil  fields  keep  within  the 


MINERAL  PBODUCTS 


617 


state  over  thirty  million  dollars  per  year  that  was  formerly  sent 
away  for  coal.  Tlie  oil  wells  average  about  a  thousand  feet  in  depth, 
and  cost  from  15000  to  |10,000  each.  The  California  oil  in  most 
cases  must  be  pumped  out,  as  it  is  a  thick,  black,  heavy  fluid,  about 
one  third  of  it  asphaltum;  although  there  are  several  flowing  wells, 
for  example  the  Hartnell  Gusher,  Santa  Barbara  County,  producing 


Fig.  616. 

A  view  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company's  refinery  at  Point  Richmond.  Notice  the  oil  tanks, 
stills,  smokestacks  —  indicating  business  activity  and  commercial  life.  Here  is  where 
the  crude  oil  is  refined  and  its  various  constituent  parts  made  ready  for  market. 

from  3000  to  5000  barrels  a  day,  while  other  wells  yield  from  5  to 
200  barrels  per  day,  every  day  in  the  year.  The  selling  price  has 
been  very  low,  about  thirty-five  cents  a  barrel,  for  the  reason  that 
California  was  not  prepared  to  use  the  immense  quantities  that  were 
suddenly  produced  upon  the  discovery  of  the  Kern  River  oil  fields. 
This  led  to  discouragements,  losses,  and  great  wastes  of  this  valuable 
natural  resource.  Because  of  its  cheapness  it  has  been  largely  used 
to  sprinkle  the  dust  of  streets  and  roads  in  many  places.  It  is  too 
precious  to  the  world  to  be  long  used  in  that  way,  however.  This 
oil  is  another  of  the  things  belonging  to  the  people  of  the  state  that 
true  patriotism  demands  of  us  to  protect  and  use  wisely.     There  is 


eiS  ifEOQBAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 

employment  and  prosperity  bottled  up  in  it  for  the  boys  and  girls 
who  read  this,  and  for  those  of  future  generations.  To  pump  it  out 
of  its  underground  reservoirs  before  it  is  needed,  to  waste  it  and  sell 
it  for  a  song,  is  wanton  extravagance  with  what  really  does  not  belong 
to  us,  but  to  our  descendants. 

Natural  gas  often  occurs  in  the  oil  wells  and  elsewhere.  It  is 
piped  into  furnaces  or  stoves,  and  makes  the  most  desirable  fuel  that 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  It  should  not  be  used  for  burning  bricks 
or  other  manufacturing  purposes,  but  saved  for  household  use.  Arti- 
ficial gas  in  California  is  manufactured  almost  entirely  from  petro- 
leum.    In  other  states  it  is  usually  made  from  coal. 

Salt  (Fig.  565),  borax,  niter,  and  soda  (Fig.  566)  have  been  men- 
tioned as  occurring  in  the  muddy  bottoms  of  desert  sinks.  When 
transportation  from  the  desert  regions  becomes  better  and  cheaper, 
niter  will  become  a  highly  important  product.  It  is  needed  in  mak- 
ing explosives  and  fertilizers.  Our  growing  orchards  will  continue 
to  need  fertilizers,  and  the  niter  beds  that  make  the  chief  wealth  of 
Chili  are  said  to  be  nearing  exhaustion.  Our  country  sends  away 
millions  of  dollars  every  year  for  Chilian  niter.  There  is  a  point 
here  for  ambitious  boys  to  ponder  upon.  Salt  is  also  extracted  from 
sea  water  by  evaporation  at  San  Francisco  and  San  Diego.  The 
water  is  let  into  broad,  shallow  ponds,  and  evaporated  in  the  heat  of 
the  sun. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Name  some  of  the  metals  and  building  materials  of  the  state.  (2)  De- 
scribe dredger  mining.  What  effect  has  it  on  the  land  mined  ?  (3)  Tell  of  the 
copper  industry  ;  iron;  quicksilver;  marble;  asphaltum.  For  what  is  each  used? 
(4)  Where  are  gem  stones  found  ?  Mention  the  principal  kinds.  (5)  Where  are 
the  oil  fields  ?  Describe  an  oil  well.  (6)  What  is  meant  by  refining  crude  oil  ? 
(7)  What  is  natural  gas,  and  what  use  is  made  of  it? 

Manufacturing 

In  the  past,  California  has  been  held  back  in  manufacturing  be- 
cause fuel  in  the  form  of  coal  had  to  be  shipped  in,  and  was  expen- 
sive. Things  are  different  now.  The  petroleum  of  our  oil  wells 
(Fig.  615)  is  being  used  in  great  quantities  as  fuel  to  make  steam 
for  the  engines  that  turn  the  wheels  of  hundreds  of  new  factories. 
Besides,  the  water  power  (Fig.  549)  of  the  Sierran  streams  is  used 
to  generate  electricity,  which  is  taken  by  long  lines  of  wires,  up 
and  down  and  across  our  state,  wherever  it  may  be  needed  to  run 
maohinery.     Many  of  our  factories  are  busy  preparing  the  products 


MANUFACTUBING 


619 


of  our  farms  for  market.  Flour  mills  (Fig.  617),  wineries  (Fig.  603), 
canneries,  creameries,  and  olive-oil  factories  turn  out  products  of 
which  we  may  be  proud. 
Our  sugar  refineries  and 
beet-sugar  factories  (Fig. 
618)  are  increasing  in  num- 
ber and  importance.  Great 
smelters  are  at  work  purify- 
ing the  gold,  silver,  copper 
(Fig.  614),  and  lead  taken 
from  the  mines.  We  have 
tanneries  making  leather  out 
of  the  hides  of  our  cattle, 
and  woolen  mills  using  the  wool  of  our  great  flocks  of  sheep. 
Cement  works,  potteries,  and  brickyards  supply  their  share  of  material 
for  our  growing  cities.  Foundries,  ship-building  yards,  and  fac- 
tories for  making  mining  machinery  have  become  important.  Powder 
works  and  match  factories  are   found.      Most   of   these   factories, 


Fig.  617. 

U.  S.  Army  Transport  Logan  loading  flour  at 
South  Vallejo. 


Fig.  618. 
Hauling  beets  to  the  beet  sugar  factory,  Hamilton,  Glenn  County. 


especially  the  larger  ones,  are  situated  in  the  San  Francisco 
region.  It  is  of  great  value  to  any  factory  to  have  a  water  route 
right  in  front  of  it.  That  means  that  it  can  get  its  raw  material 
and  send  out  its  finished  products  in  ships  (Fig.  618),  and  ships 
do  not  charge  as  much  for  carrying  freight  as  the  railroads  do. 


620 


QEOGBAPHT  OF  CALIFORNIA 


There  is  a  good  future  for  manufacturing  in  this  state.  We 
have  plenty  of  good,  cheap  power ;  the  state  is  building  up,  and 
our  home  demand  for  factory  products  is  getting  larger  every  day. 
Across  the  great  Pacific  are  new  lands  swarming  with  people  who 
are  beginning  to  buy  manufactured  goods  from  us  ;  and  before  long 
the  Panama  Canal  will  give  our  products  a  cheap  and  easy  route 
to  the  eastern  part  of  our  country  and  to  all  the  countries  of  Europe. 
Many  a  boy  and  girl  who  reads  this  will  see  the  day  when  there  will 
be  a  dozen  factories  in  California  for  every  one  that  is  here  now. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Why  is  California  not  a  manufacturing  state  ?  (2)  What  tends  to  foster 
great  manufacturing  interests ?  (3)  What  are  smelters?  tanneries?  potteries? 
foundries  ?  woolen  mills  ?  (4)  Where  are  most  of  the  factories  situated  ?  Why  ? 
(5)  What  do  you  think  of  the  future  of  manufacturing  in  California?  (6)  How 
will  the  Panama  Canal  benefit  California? 


Transportation 

The  wagon  roads  and  railways  follow  geographical  lines,  running 
northwest  and  southeast  along  the  great  valleys  and  between  the 
long  mountain  chains ;  with  but  few  cross  ways  leading  from  the 


Fig.  619. 
The  "Overland  Limited"  leaving  Sixteenth  Street  Station,  Oakland;  U.  S.  battleship  in 

the  distance. 

coast  to  the  great  valleys  and  from  the  great  valleys  to  the  desert 
regions.     The  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  (Fig.  619)  runs  the  entire 


TRANSPOBTATION  621 

length  of  the  state  through  the  Great  Valley  Region,  from  Oregon 
to  the  southern  end  of  the  state.  It  has  a  parallel  line  through  the 
Coast  Region  from  San  Francisco  to  Los  Angeles,  and  many  brandies 
leading  into  the  side  valleys.  From  Los  Angeles  it  runs  easterly 
through  the  desert,  headed  for  New  Orleans ;  in  the  north  it  extends 
to  Portland,  Oregon ;  in  the  center,  its  traffic  goes  east,  via  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific,  over  the  Sierras  (Fig.  563),  through  Ogden,  and  on  to 


Fig.  620. 
U.  S.  Army  transport  Sheridan,  bound  for  the  Orient. 

Chicago  and  New  York.  It  has  more  than  3000  miles  within  the 
state  of  California. 

The  Santa  Fe  Railroad  reaches  from  San  Francisco  via  Point 
Richmond  down  the  Great  Valley,  over  the  Tehachapi  Pass,  across 
the  Mojave  Desert  and  on  to  the  east,  leaving  the  state  by  crossing 
the  Colorado  River  at  Needles.  From  the  desert  station  of  Barstow, 
a  branch  extends  into  the  southern  counties  by  the  Cajon  Pass,  going 
through  San  Bernardino  to  Los  Angeles,  and  on  down  the  coast  to 
San  Diego. 

The  Salt  Lake  Road  extends  from  Los  Angeles  to  Salt  Lake, 
Utah,  by  way  of  the  Cajon  Pass  and  the  Mojave  Desert. 

The  Western  Pacific  is  a  new  transcontinental  road  coming  into 
the  state  across  the  deserts  of  Nevada,  over  the  Sierras  through  the 
Beckwith  Pass,  and  down  the  Sacramento  Valley,  making  ferry  con- 
nections at  Oakland  for  San  Francisco. 

The  California  Northwestern  Railroad  extends  from  San   Fran- 


GEOQBAPHT  OF  CALIFOENIA 


Cisco  northward  through  the  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  headed  for 
Humboldt  Bay  and  the  coast  of  Oregon. 

A  great  development  of  transportation  by  electric  railroads  may 
be  expected  in  the  future.  Already  the  more  closely  settled  regions 
are  gridironed  by  trolley  lines  (Fig.  551),  some  a  hundred  miles 
long;  and  these  will  be  multiplied  and  extended  until  the  fertile 
part  of  the  state  becomes  a  perfect  network.  The  mountain  streams 
come  down  steep  slopes  near  the  wide  valleys,  with  their  growing 
cities.  Thus  the  conditions  are  just  right  for  a  wonderful  develop- 
ment of  electric  power,  giving  employment  to  thousands  of  engi- 
neers and  electricians  who  are  now  little  boys  in  school. 

On  the  ocean  there  is  great  traffic  by  steamers  (Fig.  620)  and 
sailing  vessels  up  and  down  the  coast  and  with  foreign  ports  as  well. 
The  steamship  lines  radiating  from  San  Francisco,  the  swarms  of 

boats  and  ships  that 
ply  in  and  out  of  the 
smaller  harbors  along 
the  shore  all  the  way 
from  Crescent  City  to 
San  Diego,  the  river 
crafts  (Fig.  621)  that 
go  up  and  down  the 
streams  emptying  into 
San  Francisco  Bay,  the 
wheat  ships,  the  lum- 
ber vessels,  the  army 
transports,  the  men-of- 
war,  all  these  fill  the  waters  of  California  with  life  and  motion  (Fig. 
525)  and  make  for  the  greatness  of  the  state.  All  these  must  be 
dismissed  here  with  only  the  brief  hint  that  our  shipping  is  full  of 
interest  for  all  children,  and  will  yield  many  a  fascinating  story. 


1 

Miff 

■^S9^^^i9^^t^MF<i^f^iJ^^^^^3S^^B^^^^H 

1         .-ut . 

""  m^^^ " '^^^^^B 

■§ 

"'  'T?i  i^MI 

Fig.  621. 
A   passenger   and   freight  steamer  on  the  Sacramento 
River,  plying  between  Sacramento  and  Sau  Francisco. 


QUESTIONS 

(1)  Inwhat  direction  do  most  of  the  railroads  run?  Why?  (2)  What  two  long 
parallel  lines  has  the  Southern  Pacific  in  California?  (3)  By  what  two  routes 
could  you  go  east  by  the  Southern  Pacific  ?  (4)  Suppose  you  were  going  to  New 
York.  Describe  your  trip  and  the  California  cities  you  would  pass  through  if  you 
went  by  the  Santa  Fe' ;  by  the  Salt  Lake  ;  by  the  Western  Pacific.  (5)  How  are 
the  rural  districts  being  brought  into  close  relations  with  commercial  centers? 
(6)  What  important  means  of  transportation  other  than  the  railroads  is  there  in 
this  state?     (7)  Tell  something  of  the  traffic  in  and  out  of  the  Golden  Gate. 


EARTHQUAKES  628 

Eabthquakes 

Once  our  old  earth  was  much  hotter  on  its  surface  than  it  is  now. 
It  is  still  very  hot  inside.  This  is  shown  to  us  by  the  hot  springs 
(Fig.  151),  the  volcanoes,  with  their  streams  of  lava,  and  the  high 
temperature  found  in  the  bottom  of  deep  mines.  *  Slowly,  through 
the  centuries,  it  has  been  and  still  is  cooling  off.  As  it  cools,  it 
contracts,  just  as  a  hot  wagon  tire  shrinks  a  little  in  cooling  off 
after  the  blacksmith  has  placed  it  on  the  wheel  and  poured  cold 
water  over  it. 

The  Pacific  Coast  is  a  line  of  weakness  in  the  earth.  Mountains 
are  growing  here.  Here  the  high  mountains  are  near  the  deep  sea. 
Here  are  many  long  lines  of  fracture  in  the  earth,  running  parallel 
to  our  mountain  ranges.  As  the  earth  contracts,  its  outer  rocks 
wrinkle  like  the  skin  of  a  shriveled  apple.  These  wrinkles  are 
our  mountain  ranges.  As  they  are  straining  under  the  fearful  pres- 
sure put  upon  them  by  the  contracting  earth,  they  frequently  break, 
one  edge  of  the  break  slipping  up,  the  other  down.  This  breaking 
and  grinding  of  the  rocky  edges  against  each  other,  as  they  slip, 
makes  the  shock  and  trembling  of  the  ground  that  we  know  as 
earthquake.  If  a  great  city  happens  to  be  near  the  break,  great 
damage  results  ;  particularly  if  the  houses  of  the  city  are  badly  built 
or  built  on  poor  foundations,  or  built  with  tall  towers  and  chimneys 
that  are  readily  shaken  down.  The  earthquake  of  1906  was  a  fur- 
ther slipping  of  an  old  break  up  and  down  the  state  along  the  coast 
range  that  has  been  known  for  many  years.  It  is  some  700  miles 
long,  one  of  the  longest  in  the  world,  reaching  from  Mendocino 
County  to  the  deserts  of  Southern  California.  The  earthquake  of 
1872  in  Inyo  County  was  much  more  severe  than  that  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, but  being  in  a  sparsely  settled  country,  little  danger  to  mankind 
was  possible.  The  same  may  be  said  of  other  earthquakes  in  the 
past. 

We  should  understand  the  fact  that  earthquakes  are  quite  as 
natural  as  rainstorms  or  north  winds.  They  are  the  means  by  which 
our  mountains  grow,  but  they  come  so  infrequently  that  they  surprise 
and  frighten  us.  There  is  nothing  in  them  to  excite  unreasoning 
terror  for  they  do  not  destroy  nearly  as  many  people  as  whooping 
cough  or  other  common  illness ;  are  not  nearly  so  costly  to  human 
life  as  baseball  or  football;  and  those  things  do  not  frighten  us.  We 
should  regard  earthquakes  as  a  natural   phenomenon,   and  should 


624 


GEOGBAh-HY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


build  for  them,  guarding  against  them  as  we  do  against  rain  and  wind. 
It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  future  will  again  see  both  earth- 
quake and  volcanic  activity  within  our  borders. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Why  doesthe  earth  contract  ?  (2)  Why  must  we  expect  earthquakes  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  ?  (3)  What  causes  an  earthquake  ?  (4)  How  does  the  loss  of 
life  by  earthquake  compare  with  that  by  athletic  sports? 


History 

Since  we  have  a  good  history  of  the  state  In  the  text-books  on 
United  States  History,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  go  into  the  matter 
here,  further  than  to  point  out  a  few  historic  facts  directly  connected 
with  our  geography, 

A  very  striking  fact  is  that  California  was  so  far  behind  the  rest 
of  the  continent  in  being  accurately  known  to  the  civilized  nations 

of  the  world  and  in  being  set- 
tled by  European  peoples.  The 
coast  was  touched  by  the  ships 
of  Cabrillo  and  Drake  shortly 
before  1550;  but  after  that  the 
region  seemed  to  have  been 
forgotten.  It  lay  for  a  century 
and  a  half  —  four  or  five  gen- 
erations—  unsettled,  unvisited, 
unknown.  Virginia  had  been 
settled  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years  before  an  American  ship 
ever  came  to  California.  Even 
as  late  as  the  Revolutionary 
War  the  densest  ignorance  pre- 
vailed. It  was  supposed  to  be 
an  island,  or  a  peninsula  extend- 
ing all  the  way  from  Mexico 
to  British  Columbia.  The  old 
maps  seem  queer  creations  as 
we  look  at  them  now.  At  last 
the  Spaniards  who  had  settled  in  Mexico  sent  some  colonies  up  into 
California  to  convert  the  Indians  (Fig.  622)  and  secure  the  country 
for  Spain,     The  first  settlement  was  made  at  San  Diego,  our  nearest 


Fig.  622. 
Type  of  California  Indians,  fast  passing  away. 


Fio.  623.  —  HiSTORicAii  Buildings. 
Sutter's  Fort,  Sacramento,    2.   Colton  Hall,  Monterey.    The  first  capitol  of  the  statOc 


3.  The  old  U«  S.  customhouse,  Monterey. 


626 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


city  to  the  Mexican  boundary,  in  1769.  Other  Mexican-Spanish 
expeditions  felt  their  way  with  uncertainty  up  the  coast.  One  under- 
took to  find  the  great  bay  of  Monterey  (Fig.  531),  but  missed  it 
altogether  and  discovered  San  Francisco  Bay  (Fig.  526),  instead. 
Drake  himself,  over  two  hundred  years  before,  sailed  right  past  San 
Francisco  Bay,  never  even  dreaming  of  its  existence,  while  he  stayed 
at  a  small  and  inferior  anchorage  only  a  little  way  to  the  north. 

This   belated    exploration    and   settlement,   this   ignorance    and 
uncertainty,   grew    directly  out   of   geographical   conditions.     The 

country  was  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
continent  by  vast  deserts  and  snowy 
mountain  ranges  across  which  no  man 
at  that  time  had  passed.  Moreover,  the 
coast  was  stern  and  rockbound,  with 
few  safe  anchorages  for  ships,  and  with 
no  base  of  supplies  on  that  side  of  the 
world. 

The  early  settlements,  too  (Fig. 
623),  were  determined  by  geographic 
conditions.  When  the  Spanish  padres 
selected  the  sites  for  their  chain  of 
twenty-one  missions  up  and  down  the 
state,  they  showed  great  sagacity. 
Their  locations  were  the  fairest  and 
the  richest  in  the  state,  and  the  wis- 
dom of  their  choice  shows  forth  to-day. 
A  road  connecting  these  missions  was 
built  by  the  Mission  Fathers.  The 
name  given  the  road  was  "El  Camino 
Real"  (Fig.  624),  which  is  now  being 
restored.  Where  are  our  large  cities, 
our  rich  valleys?  San  Francisco,  Los 
Angeles,  Santa  Barbara,  San  Diego, 
Sonoma,  Santa  Clara,  San  Buenaven- 
tura,-—  these  were  all  started  by  the 
Mission  Fathers. 

Later    historic    events     were     also 

shaped  by  the  geography  of  the  state. 

The  wonderful  tide  of  immigration  that  began  in  1849  (Fig.  547), 

that  brought  100,000  men  in  a  year  or  two,  and  that  resulted  in 


Fig.  624. 

One  of  the  many  Mission  Bells  that 
mark  the  way  of  "El  Camino 
Real." 


EDUCATION  AND  GOVERNMENT  627 

the  admission  of  the  full-fledged  state  in  1850,  grew  directly  from 
the  fact  that  the  streams  of  the  Sierras  had  washed  out  gold  from  the 
quartz  seams  of  the  Mother  Lode,  and  deposited  it  in  the  gravels 
of  the  foothill  counties.  Every  city  in  this  state  grew  up  for  some 
geographic  reason  which  would  be  interesting  to  trace.  Our  future 
as  well  as  our  past  rests  upon  our  geographical  conditions,  upon  the  way 
our  country  is  built  and  how  it  is  located.  Our  wealth,  our  future, 
are  bound  up  in  our  long,  rich  valleys  ;  in  our  streams  of  water  from 
a  long,  snow-crowned  mountain  range  ;  in  our  long  shore  line  that 
controls  the  commerce  of  our  continent  with  the  Orient. 

QUESTIONS 

(1)  Compare  the  settlement  of  California  with  that  of  the  Eastern  States,  as 
to  methods  and  time,  giving  reasons  for  the  differences.  (2)  Why  do  you  suppose 
San  Francisco  Bay  was  so  long  undiscovered?  (3)  Why  did  the  early  Spaniards 
come  to  California?  (4)  Name  the  sites  of  the  early  missions.  If  you  have  seen 
one,  describe  it.  (5)  What  has  become  of  the  descendants  of  the  early  Indians? 
(6)  How  has  the  geography  of  the  state  affected  its  history  ? 

Education 

California  affords  good  opportunity  for  education.  Its  school 
system  consists  of  the  following  elements  :  — 

Firstj  the  Public  Schools  with  about  fourteen  thousand  teachers  and 
about  thirty  children  for  each  teacher.  Each  of  these  thirties  costs 
the  taxpayers  of  the  state  about  a  thousand  dollars  per  year.  Our 
laws  are  exceedingly  generous  to  the  small  and  remote  schools  of 
the  state,  allowing  #600  or  more  to  every  school  district,  no  matter 
how  small  and  no  matter  how  little  the  tax  that  it  pays.  Some  dis- 
tricts pay  only  $50  or  less  in  school  taxes  in  return  for  the  |600 
or  more  that  they  receive  as  school  funds.  The  difference  is 
made  up  by  the  taxes  paid  by  the  cities.  The  state  pays  these 
great  sums  of  money  so  that  all  the  children  may  learn  to  under- 
stand each  other,  learn  to  get  along  well  together,  grow  into 
decent,  intelligent  citizens  together.  It  is  unfortunate  for  any  one 
to  fail  to  get  the  experience  of  our  public  schools,  if  he  is  to  live  in 
our  country.  The  schools  are  intended  to  help  all  young  people  to 
learn  to  make  an  honest  living  in  the  world,  to  take  an  intelligent 
part  in  our  government,  to  be  useful  to  their  fellow-citizens,  and  to 
be  happy  (Figs.  625-626). 

Second,  the  Normal  Schools  where  teachers  are  trained.  These 
are  supported  by  state  taxation,  and  cost  about  $450,000  per  year. 


«M 


1.  School  gardening.    Washington  School,  Santa  Barbara. 


Sewing.    Training  School,  San  Diego 
State  Normal  School. 


3.  Wood  work.    Training  School,  San 
Diego  State  Normal  School. 


v 

1 

.  ^  l-fl~w 

*■ 

1         J     . "      '^ 

1    ' 

> 

4.  Cooking.    Fresno  Grammar  School. 
Fio.  626.  —  Industrial  Work  in  Public  Schools^ 


«a— A« 


mu 


630 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


They  are  five  in  number,  located  at  Cliico  in  the  north,  San  Fran- 
cisco and  San  Jose  in  the  middle,  Los  Angeles  and  San  Diego  in  the 
south. 

Third,    Special    State    Schools,   as   the   California   Polytechnic 
School  (Fig.  627)  at  San  Luis  Obispo,  free  to  boys  and  girls  who 


mmf  If' ■ 


iiiiiiiiMinill 


Fig.  627. 
California  Polytechnic  School. 

want  to  be  farmers,  stock  growers,  or  tradesmen  ;  the  Institution 
for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind  at  Berkeley  (Fig.  628) ;  the  School  of 
Industry  at  lone  and  the  State  Industrial  School  at  Whittier,  where 

children  are  sent 
by  the  courts  to 
get  a  new  chance 
to  learn  decent 
citizenship. 

Fourth,  Pri- 
vate Schools,  doing 
work  similar  to 
our  public  schools, 
but  supported  by 
churches  and  the 
parents  of  children 
who  attend  them. 
Fig.  028.  There    are    about 

Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind,  Berkeley.  i^q      hundred     of 

these  in  the  state,  chiefly  parochial  schools.  There  are  about  forty 
orphan  schools,  partly  supported  by  the  state. 

Fifth,  Sectarian  Colleges,  supported  by  tuition  charges  and  pri- 
vate benefactions,  and   controlled   by   various  religious   denomina- 


Fig.  629.  —  Umykksities. 

1.    Greek  Theatre,  University  of  California.    2.  Quadrangle  and  Memorial  Church,  Leland 
Stanford  Jr.  University.    3.  Lick  Observatory,  Mt  Hamilton,  near  San  Jose. 


632  GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

tions.  Santa  Clara  College  is  Catholic  ;  Occidental  at  Los  Angeles 
is  Presbyterian;  Pomona  is  Congregational;  the  University  of  South* 
ern  California  at  Los  Angeles  and  the  University  of  the  Pacific 
near  San  Jose  are  Methodist.  Mills  College  at  Oakland  is  the  only 
college  exclusively  for  women  in  the  state. 

Sixth,  LTniversities  (Fig.  629).  The  University  of  California  at 
Berkeley  is  supported  by  state  taxes  and  private  benefactions. 
Stanford  University,  at  Palo  Alto,  is  supported  by  private  benefac- 
tion. Tuition  in  both  of  these  universities  is  free,  and  both  are  co- 
educational ;  that  is,  they  educate  both  men  and  women. 

Government 

California  is  one  of  the  forty-eight  states  of  the  Union  governed  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  the  other  states  under  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, whose  seat  is  at  Washington,  D.C. 

The  laws  of  the  Federal  Government  are  made  by  Congress 
(Fig.  85),  composed  of  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  laws  of  the  State  Government  are  made  by  the  Legislature 
(Fig.  630),  composed  of  the  Senate  and  Assembly.  In  California 
the  Legislature  meets  biennially.  The  Judicial  Department  consists 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  three  Appellate  Courts,  County  Superior 
Courts,  Justice  Courts,  and  Police  Courts. 

There  are  fifty-eight  counties  in  the  state,  each  of  which  has  local 
laws  enacted  by  its  Board  of  Supervisors.  Every  incorporated  city 
in  the  state  has  its  own  local  laws  enacted  by  its  Governing  Body. 
The  Governor  of  the  state  is  the  chief  Executive. 


QUESTIONS 

(1)  Describe  the  pubHc  school  system  of  California.  For  what  purposes  do 
the  public  schools  exist?  (2)  Tell  of  the  normals;  how  many;  where  located. 
(3)  What  are  the  special  state  schools?  Name  some.  (4)  Tell  of  the  private 
schools.  (5)  Sectarian  colleges.  Give  names  of  some  of  the  most  prominent 
ones.  (6)  What  is  a  university  ?  Name  the  two  large  ones  in  California.  (7) 
Describe  briefly  the  government  of  California.  (8)  How  many  states  are  in 
the  Union  ? 


1.  The  "White  House,"  Washington,  D.C.    The  home  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  tFnited  States. 


2.  The  State  Capitol  and  grounds,  Sacramento. 


3.  County  Court  House,  Riverside. 


Fia.  630.    GOVEENMBNT  BUILDINQS. 


634  QEOQRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Cities 

More  than  half  the  people  of  California  live  in  the  cities;  so  it  is 
important  that  all  of  us  should  get  a  clear  idea  of  cities  and  city  life 
while  we  are  learning  geography. 

Cities  are  built  up  by  reason  of  the  progress  and  development  of 
manufactures  and  commerce.  This  brings  the  people  directly  and 
indirectly  engaged  in  them  together,  at  points  best  suited  to  their 
economical  advancement.  Thus,  the  conditions  we  have  studied 
under  Manufacturing  and  Transportation  have  built  up  a  plexus  of 
cities  on  San  Francisco  Bay,  with  San  Francisco,  the  metropolis  of 
the  state,  as  its  center.  Round  about  and  closely  connected  by  rail- 
roads, trolley  lines  and  ferries  are:  Oakland,  third  city  of  the  state; 
Berkeley,  seat  of  the  state  university;  Alameda,  San  Rafael,  Point 
Richmond  and  many  other  towns  (see  map  opposite  page  556). 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  similar  conditions  have  built  up 
another  great  plexus  of  cities,  with  Los  Angeles,  second  city  of  Cali- 
fornia, as  its  center.  Around  it  and  closely  connected  by  railroads 
and  trolley  lines,  are  Pasadena,  Long  Beach,  Santa  Ana,  Santa  Monica, 
San  Pedro  and  a  swarm  of  smaller  towns,  as  shown  on  the  map  oppo- 
site page  663. 

The  most  northern  of  the  larger  cities  is  Eureka,  and  the  most 
southern  is  San  Diego.  San  Jose,  Sacramento,  Stockton  and  Fresno 
are  the  largest  of  the  interior  cities.  There  are  about  forty  other 
important  cities,  most  of  them  county  seats  of  the  various  counties 
that  make  up  the  state. 

Limited  space  makes  it  impossible  to  describe  here,  all  these  cities, 
but  a  list  of  those  containing  two  thousand  people,  or  more,  may  be 
seen  on  page  639,  and  a  list  of  county  seats  is  given  on  page  641. 
Remember,  though,  that  these  figures  are  from  the  last  United  States 
census,  that  of  1900,  and  that  since  that  time,  many  of  these  cities 
have  grown  tremendously.  The  figures  given  are  the  latest  authentic 
ones  obtainable  at  the  time  of  printing  this  book,  but  good  estimates 
of  the  present  population  of  any  city  may  be  secured  at  the  nearest 
newspaper  office. 

Sacramento,  the  capital  city,  is  on  the  Sacramento  River,  about 
ninety  miles  northeast  of  San  Francisco.  The  Capitol  itself  (Fig.  513) 
stands 'near  the  center  of  the  city.  Its  grounds  (Fig.  630)  contain  ten 
city  blocks,  or  about  thirty-three  acres  of  deep,  alluvial  soil,  very 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  trees.  These  grounds  have  been  laid  out 
as  a  public  park,  which  has  become  famous  for  its  trees,  shrubs  and 


CITIES  685 

• 

flowers,  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Particularly  worthy  of 
notice  are  its  splendid  rows  of  cedars,  pines,  redwoods  and  magnolias. 
The  building  is  dignified  and  beautiful,  its  classic  lines  gleaming 
snowy  white  among  the  green  trees,  and  surmounted  by  a  graceful 
dome  rising  to  a  height  of  240  feet.  Its  brilliant  crown  of  electric 
lights  makes  a  landmark  at  night  in  the  adjacent  level  country,  for 
many  miles  around.  Its  cost  was  about  three  millions  of  dollars.  It 
shelters  the  Legislature,  the  Appellate  Court,  the  State  Library  and 
all  the  State  Officers. 

The  California  Blue  Book,  which  can  be  found  in  any  public 
library  or  high  school  library,  gives  a  vast  amount  of  detailed  infor- 
mation concerning  the  state  capitol,  state  officers  and  everything  con- 
nected with  the  government  of  the  state. 

QUESTIONS 

The  best  way  to  study  cities  is  for  teacher  and  pupils  to  select  some  one  city  as  a 
type,  then  consider  it  in  detail  and  at  length,  perhaps  spending  a  long  time  upon  it. 
When  one  city  is  thoroughly  understood  it  will  be  easy  to  understand  any  other  when 
the  need  to  do  so  comes  up. 

When  the  type  city  is  chosen,  all  should  work  together  in  collecting  material  to 
illustrate  it.  Pictures,  newspaper  clippings,  photographs,  letters,  magazine  articles, 
pamphlets,  specimens,  circulars  and  all  that,  will  answer  the  purpose.  This  should  be 
displayed  and  discussed  in  class;  and  the  children  should  estimate  or  figure  out 
roughly  many  interesting  questions,  such  for  instance  as  these: 

What  is  the  reason  for  its  location?  What  is  its  present  population?  Allowing 
five  persons  to  a  family,  how  many  families  in  the  city?  How  much  milk  would  they 
need  per  day?  How  many  cows  are  needed  to  produce  this  milk?  Where  are  they  kept? 
How  many  loaves  of  bread  per  day  would  the  people  need?  Where  does  it  come  from? 
Where  does  the  water  for  the  city  come  from?  Where  does  the  sewage  go?  What 
fuel  is  used  and  where  does  it  come  from?  What  is  the  source  of  the  city's  wealth? 
Allowing  three  children  per  family,  how  many  children  are  there  in  the  city?  How 
many  teachers  would  be  needed? 

Last  of  All 

Thus  we  have  a  picture  in  our  minds  of  California,  to  remain  dur- 
ing the  coming  years;  a  great  state,  commanding  the  central  portion 
of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America;  a  state  largest  but  one  in  the 
Union  and  most  varied  of  all  in  its  surface,  its  climates,  its  soils,  its 
products;  a  state  of  loftiest  mountains,  of  widest  deserts,  of  grandest 
scenery;  a  state  peculiarly  fitted  as  a  desirable  place  for  mankind  to 
dwell;  a  state  rich  in  resources  and  with  a  boundless  future  before 
it;  a  state  of  opportunity  for  the  young  who  are  now  reading  this 
book :  opportunity  for  power,  usefulness,  happiness,  prosperity. 


GEOGBAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS 


(1)  What  is  meant  by  the  Great  Basin  ?  (2)  What  would  happen  in  the  Great 
Basin  if  the  rainfall  should  be  greatly  increased?  (3)  Tell  something  about  the 
islands.  How  were  they  formed?  (4)  What  are  the  chief  things  which  affect  the 
climate  of  California?  (5)  On  which  side  of  the  mountain  ranges  does  it  rain 
the  most,  and  why?  (6)  Where  is  the  climate  most  uniform?  (7)  What  part  of 
the  state  receives  the  least  rain  ?  Why  ?  (8)  Tell  about  the  climates  which  you 
"would  pass  through  in  going  in  the  summer  from  the  Great  Valley  to  the  summit 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  (9)  How  would  the  vegetation  change  ?  What  trees  of 
value  for  lumber  would  you  see?  (10)  Are  the  animals  that  we  meet  to-day  like 
those  living  a  long  time  ago?  (11)  Why  do  people  destroy  animals?  What 
means  have  been  taken  for  their  preservation?  (12)  What  is  the  object  of  estab- 
lishing national  forests  ?  (13)  Why  does  California  have  such  a  variety  of  natural 
resources?  Mention  the  important  ones.  (14)  Was  California  entered  first  from 
the  land  or  from  the  water  ?  (15)  What  natural  barriers  exist  between  California 
and  the  other  portions  of  America?  Were  these  as  easy  to  cross  in  the  early  days 
as  now  ?  Why  ?  (16)  When  did  California  come  under  the  control  of  the  Ameri- 
cans? What  were  then  the  two  leading  towns?  (17)  Why  did  not  Monterey 
become  a  large  city  after  the  American  occupation?  (18)  How  much  of  a  town 
was  San  Francisco  in  1846  ?  (19)  What  led  to  the  rapid  increase  of  the  population 
of  California  after  its  conquest  from  Mexico?  (20)  What  led  San  Francisco  to 
become  the  most  important  city  of  the  state  ?  (21)  In  what  portions  of  the  state 
is  most  of  the  gold  obtained?  (22)  Describe  any  kind  of  mining  that  you  have 
seen  carried  on.  (23)  Explain  the  difference  between  placer,  hydraulic,  and  quartz 
mining.  (24)  How  did  the  pioneer  gold-seekers  reach  the  state  ?  What  difficul- 
ties did  they  encounter  ?  Mention  the  different  trails  by  which  they  entered  the 
state.  (25)  What  portion  of  the  state  was  occupied  by  the  Spanish  at  the  time 
of  the  gold  discovery?  Why?  (26)  In  what  way  are  people  enabled  to  grow 
fruit  and  other  products  where  little  rain  falls?  (27)  Tell  what  is  meant  by 
citrus  fruits ;  by  deciduous  fruit ;  by  viticulture.  (28)  If  there  were  no  high  moun- 
tains, how  would  the  water  supply  be  affected?  (29)  What  helps  to  hold  the  water 
upon  the  slopes  where  it  falls  ?    Why  ?     (30)  Describe  the  process  of  irrigation. 

(31)  What  advantage  have  irrigated  crops  over  those  dependent  upon  the  rainfall? 

(32)  What  are  the  important  fruits  shipped  out  of  the  state?  Where  do  they 
mostly  go?  (33)  Why  were  supplies  of  all  kinds  so  high  priced  following  the 
discovery  of  gold  ?  (34)  Tell  how  mountains  are  being  torn  down.  (35)  What 
agency  formed  the  most  of  the  lakes  in  California?  (36)  Tell  something  about 
the  origin  of  the  canons  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  (37)  Watch  the  work 
of  water  upon  a  slope  during  a  rain,  and  tell  what  it  does.  (38)  What  is  the  most 
important  occupation  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains?  Mention  others.  Why 
do  people  go  into  the  mountains  in  the  summer?  (39)  Mention  the  national 
parks  in  California.  Why  were  they  established ?  (40)  What  were  the  causes 
which  determined  the  locations  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Great  Valley  ?  (41)  How 
is  the  water  power  in  the  mountains  utilized  ?  Why  are  not  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments located  in  the  mountains?  (42)  How  does  the  climate  of  the  Great 
Valley  differ  from  that  of  the  Coast?  Why?  What  part  of  the  valley  is  adapted 
to  oranges?  (43)  How  are  raisins  made?  What  kind  of  climate  is  needed? 
(44)  Where  are  most  of  the  vegetables  of  the  Great  Valley  grown?  Why?  (45) 
Where  are  the  conditions  most  advantageous  for  dairying?  Why?  (46)  What 
mineral  abundant  in  the  Coast  Ranges  is  found  in  few  places  elsewhere  in  the 


GENERAL   QUESTIONS  687 

United  States  ?  (47)  Where  are  the  great  copper  mines  ?  Mention  some  of  the 
uses  of  copper.  (48)  Describe  the  most  important  uses  of  redwood.  Tell  some- 
thing about  this  tree.  (49)  lu  what  manner  are  the  logs  taken  to  mill,  and  the 
lumber  from  the  mills  to  market?  (5u)  Why  is  stock  raising  the  most  important 
industry  of  the  volcanic  plateau?  Where  is  the  climate  of  California  the  coldest? 
The  hottest?  Why?  (51)  How  are  volcanoes  formed?  (52)  If  you  have  ever 
seen  lava,  describe  its  appearance.  (53)  By  what  mountains  is  Southern  California 
shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  state  ?  (54)  How  do  the  railroads  cross  these  moun* 
tains?  (55)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  contrast  between  Southern  California 
and  the  Great  Basin.  (56)  Mention  some  of  the  products  and  climatic  conditions 
which  have  made  Southern  California  so  noted.  (57)  Tell  what  you  can  find  out 
about  petroleum.  What  products  are  obtained  in  refining  it?  (58)  Describe  the 
value  of  mountains,  of  waste  slopes  around  the  mountains,  and  of  the  river  bottoms. 
(59)  Wliat  is  bituminous  rock,  and  for  what  is  it  used?  (GO)  Describe  the  best 
harbor  upon  the  coast  of  Southern  California.  (61)  What  has  made  Los  Angeles 
the  largest  city  in  Southern  California  ?  (62)  Describe  the  condition  of  the  streams 
in  summer  in  Southern  California.  (63)  What  is  the  difference  between  an  ordi- 
nary well  and  an  artesian  well  ?  (64)  Describe  the  kind  of  climate  and  location  best 
for  oranges;  for  apples;  for  alfalfa;  for  beans.  (65)  Why  do  you  suppose  there 
are  so  few  lakes  in  the  mountains  of  Southern  California  ?  (66)  What  is  a  cloud- 
burst? What  is  its  effect  upon  the  mountains?  Where  are  the  lowest  valleys  in 
California?  Tell  about  their  climate ?  (67)  What  is  the  nature  of  the  water  of 
lakes  without  outlet  ?  Why  ?  (68)  How  are  salt  and  soda  obtained  from  the 
waters  of  the  lakes  or  sinks  in  California  ?  (69)  In  what  portions  of  the  desert 
are  borax  and  salt  found ?  (70)  What  is  rock  salt?  (71)  What  other  minerals 
are  found  in  the  desert  ?  (72)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  vegetation  of  the  desert. 
Mention  some  of  the  important  plants  found  there. 


lAjv  Dillon.  1:56^. 
A.  native  oi  Santa  Ro&&     SLe  lioids  the  world's  record. 


SUMMARY  OF  VALUBS. 

(Fbom  Bkpobt  of  Caufobnia  Devxlopment  Boabd,  1914.) 

Summary  of  the  farm,  packing-house,  and  factory  values  of  products  of  Cali- 
fornia's soil  and  connected  industries  for  1913,  marketed  by  the  producer  and  for 
the  most  part  shipped  out  of  the  state.  Consumption  by  the  producers  not  included 
except  in  case  of  animals  slaughtered  by  rural  population. 

Compiled   from   data  gathered   from   growers,   dealers,   distributerB   and   other 
authoritative  sources. 
Orchard  products — 

Fresh  deciduous  fruits,  not  including  apples $11,000,000 

Apples 2,021,120 

Citrus  fruits  (Sept.  1. 1912-Aug.  1,  1913) 21,000,000 

Dried  fruits  and  raisins 15,000,000 

Prunes . 4,950,000 

Canned  fruits  and  vegetables 17,500,000 

Olives  and  olive  oil - 2,500,000 

Nuts 3,825,000 

$77,796,120 

Vineyard  products — 

Table  grapes $7,000,000 

Raisins 4,875,000 

Wine  and  brandy 15,000,000 

26,875.000 

Garden  products,  fresh 9,842,000 

Dairy  and  poultry  products — 

Dairy  products $34,950,552 

Poultry   products 18,205,896 

Honey,  wax,  etc 600,000 

58,756,448 

Farm  products- 
Barley  $22,542,000 

Wheat 3,990,000 

Oats  3,980,000 

Corn,  rye  and  rice 2,167,000  32,679,000 

Farm  products  (continued)  — 

Grain,  grass  hay  and  alfalfa $48,600,000 

Hops 4,250,000 

Sugar  beets  (paid  growers,  $4,923,000) 13,324,000 

Broom  com,  tobacco,  etc 230,000 

66,404,000 

Other  field  crops — 

Potatoes $9,720,800 

Potatoes,  sweet 1,200,000 

Beans 6,975,000 

Onions   2,750,000 

Seeds  and  sundry  others 2,500,000 

Melons 2,600,000 

(Dotton   1,690,000 

27,435,800 

Fish  industry- 
Coast  and  interior  (cod,  tuna  and  sardines) $3,678,534 

Salmon  fisheries,  etc 7,000,000 

10,678.884 

Forest  and  lumber  products  (estimated) 40,000,000 

Pttpoleum  (estimated),  97,865,946  barrels 46,000,000 

688 


SUMMARY. 


639 


Mineral  products,  other  (estimated)  — 

Gold  $20,000,000 

Cement 8,000.000 

CJopper 5,500,000 

Other  minerals 20,500,000 


54,000,000 


Farm  animals  and  products — 

Increase  over  1912  (U.  S.  Farmers'  Bull.) $33,834,300 

Slaughtered  for  market  in  cities 20,000,000 

Slaughtered  in  rural  districts  and  towns 18,150,000 

Other  animal  products 5,600,000 

Sundry  others,  not  included  above — 

Nursery  products $3,250,000 

Florist  products 900,000 

Fruit  marketed  in  cities 9,500,000 

Vegetables  marketed  in  cities 15,750,000 

Cider,  vinegar,  etc 2,200,000 

Total 

Manufactures  (as  reported  by  Census  1910) 

Manufactures  (increase  5  per  cent,  1913) 

Grand  total 


77,584,300 


31,600,000 

$554,651,202 

529,761,000 

26,488,050 

$1,110,900,252 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  OF  2,000  OR  MORE  PEOPLE 
CENSUS  1910. 


1900  1910 

Alameda    16,464  23,383 

Alhambra    5,021 

Anaheim    2,628 

Auburn 2,050         2,376 

Bakersfield 4,836  12,727 

Benicia 2,751  2,860 

Berkeley 13,214  40,434 

Black  Diamond 2,372 

Chico 2,640  3,750 

Coalinga 4,199 

Colton 3,980 

Corona 3,540 

Emeryville 2,613 

Eureka 7,327  11,845 

Fort  Bragg 2,408 

Fresno    12,470  24,892 

Gilroy 2,437 

Glendale 2,746 

Grass  Valley 4,719  4,520 

Hanford 2,929  4.829 

Hayward   2,746 

Hollister 2,308 

Healdsburg    2,011 

Jackson   2,086 

LlT«rmore    2,060 


1900  1910 

Palo  Alto 4.486 

Pasadena 9,117  30,291 

Petaluma 3,871  5,880 

Pomona    5,526  10,207 

Porterville 2,696 

Red  Bluff  _: 2,750  3,530 

Redding   2,946  3,572 

Redlands    4,797  10,499 

Redondo  Beach 2,935 

Redwood 2,442 

Richmond 6,802 

Riverside   7,937  15,212 

Roseville 2,608 

Sacramento 29,282  44,696 

Salinas 3,304  3,376 

San  Bernardino 6,150  12,799 

San  Diego 17,700  39,578 

San  Francisco 342,782  416,912 

San  Jose 21,500  28,946 

San  Leandro 2,253  3,471 

San  Luis  Obispo  —  3,021  5,157 

San  Mateo 4,884 

San  Rafael 3,879  5,934 

Santa  Ana 4,033  8,429 

SanU  Barbara 6.587  n,W9 


g40  SUMMARY. 

Lodi    2,697 

Long  Beach 2,252  17,800 

Los  Angeles 102,479  319,198 

Los  Gatos 2,232 

Madera . 2,4(M 

Martinez    2,115 

Marysville 3,497  5,430 

Merced 3,102 

Mill  Valley 2,551 

Modesto 2,024  4,034 

Monrovia 3,576 

Monterey   4,923 

Napa 4,036  5,791 

Nevada  City 3,250  2,689 

Oakland 66,960  150.174 

Ocean  Park 3,119 

Ontario 4,270 

Orange 2,920 

Oroville   3,859 

Oxnard 2,555 

Pacific  Grove 2,384 


Santa  Clara 3,650  4,348 

Santa  Cruz 5,659  11,146 

Santa  Maria 2,260 

Santa  Monica 3,057  7,847 

Santa  Paula 2,216 

Santa  Rosa 6,673  7.817 

Sausalito 2,383 

Sawtelle 2,143 

Sonora   2,029 

South  Pasadena 4,649 

Stockton 17,506  23,253 

Tulare 2,216  2,758 

Ukiah 2,136 

Upland 2,384 

Vallejo  7,965  11,340 

Ventura   2,470  2,945 

Visalia   3,085  4,550 

Watsonville 3,528  4,446 

Whittier 4,550 

Woodland 2,886  3,187 


POPULATION  or  COUNTIES. 


IMO  1913 

Alameda 246,131  285,000 

Alpine 309  309 

Amador 9,086  10.000 

Butte 27,301  30.000 

Calaveras 9,171  10.000 

Colusa 7,732  8,500 

Contra  Costa 31,674  42,500 

Del  Norte 2,417  2,417 

EI  Dorado 7,492  7,500 

Fresno 75,657  100,000 

Glenn   7,172  9,000 

Humboldt 33,857  37,000 

Imperial 13,591  30,000 

Inyo 6.974  6,974 

Kern 37,715  55,000 

Kings   16,230  18,500 

Lake 5,526  5,526 

Lassen 4,802  7,000 

Los  Angeles 504,131  800,000 

Madera 8,368  15,000 

Marin 25,114  26,000 

Mariposa   3,956  4,000 

Mendocino 23,929  25,000 

Merced   15,148  20,000 

Modoc 6.191  7,000 

Mono a.843  2,042 

Monterey   1  24,146  24,146 

Napa 19,800  21,000 

Nevada 14.955  15.000 

Or»Bge »4,4S6  42,600 


1910  1913 

Placer 18,237  18,237 

Plumaa 5,259  6,000 

Riverside   34,696  38,000 

Sacramento 67,806  90,000 

San  Benito 8,041  8,400 

San  Bernardino 56,706  75,000 

San  Diego 61,665  140,000 

San   Francisco 416.912  560,582 

San  Joaquin 50,731  50,731 

San  Luis  Obispo 19,383  24,000 

San  Mateo 26,585  37,500 

Santa  Barbara 27,738  32,500 

Santa  Clara 83,539  97,039 

Santa  Cruz 26,140  29,000 

Shasta 18,920  20,000 

Sierra 4,098  4,098 

Siskiyou 18,800  24,000 

Solano 27,559  29,080 

Sonoma 48,394  52,500 

Stanislaus   22,522  35,000 

Sutter 6,328  7,000 

Tehama    11,401  12,775 

Trinity 3,301  3,300 

Tulare 35,440  37,500 

Tuolumne 9,979  10,000 

Ventura    18,347  20,000 

Yolo 13,926  15,000 

Yuba 10,042  11,500 

Oaiifornia 2,377,549  8,156,666 


SUMMARY 
THE  COUNTIES  01  CALIFORNIA 


641 


County 

Date 
of  Or- 
Kanl- 
zatlon 

Area 
Sq.  MI. 

Value  of 

AH  Property 

1910 

Origin  or  Meaning  of 
Name  of  County 

County  Seat 

Alameda  .    .    .    . 

1853 

840 

$243,043,586 

Shady  Walk 

Oakland 

Alpine 

1864 

575 

539.905 

The  Alps 

Markleeville 

Amador    .    .    .    . 

1854 

568 

6,081,630 

Lover 

Jackson 

Butte 

1850 

1,764 

25,469,997 

Sutter  Buttes 

Oroville 

Calaveras    .    .    . 

1850 

990 

6,607.594 

Skulls 

San  Andreas 

Colusa      .    .    .    . 

1850 

1,080 

14,685,281 

Indian  Tribe 

Colusa 

Contra  Costa    . 

1850 

750 

42.631,665 

Opposite  Coast 

Martinez 

Del  Norte    .    .    . 

1857 

1,546 

4,880.765 

The  North 

Crescent  City 

El  Dorado  .    .    . 

1850 

1,891 

6,785,170 

Land  of  Gold 

Placerville 

Fresno      .    .    .    . 

1856 

5,606 

78,998,660 

Ash  Tree 

Fresno 

Glenn 

1891 

1,460 

16,980,132 

Dr.  Hugh  J.  Glenn 

Willows 

Humboldt    .    .    . 

1853 

3,507 

34,958,314 

Baron  Alexander 
von  Humboldt 

Eureka 

Imperial  .    .    .    . 

1907 

4,140 

17,802,655 

From  Imperial 
Valley 

El  Centro 

Inyo 

1866 

10,224 

6,268.862 

Indian  Tribe 

Independence 

Kern 

1866 

8,159 

73.253,382 

Lieutenant  Kern 

Bakersfield 

Kings    .    .    .    .    . 

1893 

1,260 

15,356,486 

Kings  River 

Hanford 

Lake 

1861 

1,332 

4.824,106 

Clear  Lake 

Lakeport 

Lassen      .    .    .    . 

1864 

4,750 

7,431,405 

Peter   Lassen 

Susanville 

Los  Angeles    .    . 

1850 

3,880 

726,110,668 

The  Angels 

Los  Angeles 

Madera     .    .    .    . 

1893 

2,140 

14,388,045 

Timber 

Madera 

Marin 

1850 

516 

21,003.985 

Indian  Chief 

San  Rafael 

Mariposa      .    .    . 

1850 

1,580 

3.567.315 

Butterfly 

Mariposa 

Mendocino  .    .    . 

J850 

3,400 

16.334.097 

Mendoza  — Vice- 
roy Oi  Mexico 

Ukiah 

Merced      .    .    .    . 

1855 

1,750 

25.001.574 

Mercy 

Merced 

Modoc 

1874 

4,097 

6.691,970 

Modoc  Indians 

Alturas 

Mono 

1861 

2,796 

1,437,518 

Good  Looking 

Bridgeport 

Monterey      .    .    . 

1850 

3,450 

31,769,895 

Mountain  King 

Salinas 

Napa 

1850 

800 

17.419,458 

Fish 

Napa  City 

Nevada     ,    .    .    . 

1851 

958 

8,100,054 

Snowy 

Nevada  City 

Orange     .    .    .    . 

1889 

780 

44,526,688 

Orange  Groves 

Santa  Ana 

Placer  

1851 

1,484 

13,379,216 

The  Place  of  Gold 

Auburn 

Plumas     .    .    .    . 

1854 

2,361 

8,960,958 

T^eathers 

Quincy 

Riverside     .    .    . 

1893 

7,008 

31,532,687 

City  of  Riverside 

Riverside 

Sacramento     .    . 

1850 

1,C07 

86.589.795 

Sacrament 

Sacramento 

San  Benito  .    .    . 

1874 

1,476 

8,184,027 

St.  Benedict 

Hollister 

San  Bernardino  . 

1853 

20,055 

58.285.281 

Bold  as  a  Bear 

San  Bernardino 

San  Diego    .    .    . 

1850 

4,877 

59,140,997 

St.  James 

San  Diego 

San  Francisco    . 

1850 

42 

605,141.664 

St.  Francis  Mission 

San  Francisco 

San  Joaquin  .    . 

1850 

1,370 

64.715.657 

St.  Joachim 

Stockton 

San  Luis  Obispo 

1850 

3,500 

$20,207,375 

St.  Louis  the 
Bishop 

San  Luis 
Obispo 

San  Mateo  .    .    . 

1856 

470 

30.739,041 

St.  Matthew 

Redwood  City 

Santa  Barbara  . 

1850 

2,450 

32,722,992 

St.  Barbara 

Santa  Barbara 

Santa  Clara  .    . 

1850 

1,355 

77,987,556 

St.  Clara 

San  Jose 

Santa  Cruz      .    . 

1850 

425 

19,915,174 

Holy  Cross 

Santa  Cruz 

Shasta      .    .    .    . 

1850 

4,050 

15,642.300 

Chaste 

Redding 

Sierra 

1852 

910 

2,394.194 

Mountain  Chain 

Downieville 

Siskiyou  .    .    .    . 

1852 

6,078 

21,583.145 

Indian  Tribe 

Yreka 

Solano      .    .    .    . 

1850 

911 

24.941.957 

East  Wind 

Fairfield 

Sonoma    .    .    .    . 

1850 

1.540 

40,110,583 

Valley  of  the  Moon 

Santa  Rosa 

642 


SUMMARY 

THE  COUNTIES  OF  CALIFORNIA  {Continued) 


County 

Date 
of  Or- 
gani- 
-latlon 

Area 
Sq.  Mi. 

Value  of 
All  Property 

1910 

Origin  or  Meaning  of 
Name  of  County 

County  Seat 

Stanislaus   .    .    . 

Sutter  

Tehama    .... 
Trinity     .    .    .    . 
Tulare      .... 
Tuolumne    .    .    . 

Ventura    .... 
Yolo 

Yuba 

1854 
1850 
1856 
1850 
1852 
1850 

1872 
1850 

1850 

1,486 
611 
3,200 
3,276 
4,863 
2,282 

1,850 
1,017 

625 

$29,878,470 
9,184.568 

14,474,792 
3,052,887 

45,397,614 
9,885,945 

30,763,999 
22,085,786 

9,493,367 

Chief  Estanislao 
John  A.  Sutter 
Indian  Tribe 
Trinity  Sunday 
Valley  of  the  Tules 
Stone  House  or 

Cave 
(Good)  Luck 
A  Place  Thick 

with  Rushes 
Wild  Grape 

Modesto 
Yuba  City 
Red  Bluflf 
Weaverville 
Visalia 
Sonora 

San  Buena- 
ventura 
Woodland 
Marysville 

POPULATION  OF  CALIFORNIA,   1850  TO    1900 


Censtts  Teaks 

P0PUT.AT10N 

Increase 

Number 

Ter  Cent 

1900 

1,485,053 

1,208,130 

864,694 

560,247 

370,004 

02,597 

276,023 
343,436 
304,447 
180,253 
287,397 

22.0 

1890 

30.7 

1880 

1870 

54.3 
47.4 

1860 

310.3 

1850 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES 

Geographical  names  in  California  are  derived  mainly  from  three  sources  :  Spanish 
Indian,  and  English.  In  the  calendar  of  the  early  missionaries,  each  day  was  sacre  1  r<j 
one  of  the  saints,  and  so  they  named  new  places  according  to  the  name  of  the  saint  "i 
whose  day  the  places  were  reached  or  discovered. 

The  names  of  the  male  saints  begin  with  San,  of  the  female  with  Santa. 


San  Bruno 
San  Buenaventura 
San  Carlos 
San  Gabriel 
San  Jos6 
San  Juan 
San  Leanaro 
San  Lucas 
San  Luis  Rey 
San  Miguel 
San  Rafael 


san  broo'no 

san  bwa'-na-v6n-too'ra 

san  kar'loce 

san  ga-bre-61' 

san  ho-sa' 

san  hoo  an' 

san  la-an'dro 

san  loo'kas 

san  loo'ees  ra 

san  me-gh6i 

san  ra-fa'el 


St.  Bruno 

St.  Bonavcntuie 

St.  Charles 

St.  Gabriel 

St.  Joseph 

St.  John 

St.  Leander 

St.  Luke 

St.  Louis  King 

St.  Michael 

St.  Raphael 


Jsanta  Ana 

san'ta  a'na 

St.  Ann 

Santa  Catalina 

san'ta  ka-ta-lee'nft 

St.  Catherine 

Santa  Inez 

san'ta  e-nes' 

St.  Agnes 

Santa  Isabel 

san'ta  e-sa-bel' 

St.  Elizabeth 

Santa  Lucia 

san'ta  l6o-se'-a 

St.  Lucy 

Santa  Margarita 

san'ta  mar-ga-ree'ta 

St.  Margaret 

Santa  Maria 

san'ta  ma-ree'a 

St.  Mary 

Santa  Paula 

san'ta  powaa 

St.  Paula 

Santa  Rosa 

san'ta  ro'za 

St.  Rose 

Many  places  were 

named  from  some  characteiistic  feature  or  incident  :  — 

Agua  Fria 

a'gwa  free'a 

Cold  Water 

Alcatraz 

al'ka-tras 

Pelican 

Almaden 

ai-ma-dgn' 

The  Mine 

Arroyo  Seco 

ar-ro'yo  sa'ko 

Dry  Creek 

Arroyo  Grande 

ar-ro'yo  gran'da 

Large  Creek 

Benicia 

be-nish'i-a 

Venice 

iBuena  Vista 

bwa'na  ves'ta 

Good  View- 

Caliente 

ka-le-an'te 

Hot 

Carquinez 

kar-kee'nez 

Name  of  Indian  Tribo 

Carpinteria 

kar-pen-ta-ree'a 

Carpenter  Shop 

Cazadero 

caz-a-da'ro 

Place  for  Pursuing  Game 

Cerritos 

cer-ree'toce 

Little  Hills 

Cienega 

se-a'na-ga 

Marsh 

Colorado 

kol-o-rah'do 

Red 

Coyote 

ko-yo'ta 

A  Species  of  Wolf 

El  Toro 

el  to'ro 

The  Bull 

Escondido 

6s-kon-dee'do 

Hidden 

Farralones 

far-ra-lon'es 

Points  of  Rock  in  the  Sea 

Gabilan 

ga-ve-lan' 

Sparrow  Hawk 

Guadalupe 

gwa-da-loo'pp, 

Wolf  River 

La  JoUa 

la  ho'yah 

The  Jewel 

Lobos 

lo'boce 

Wolves 

Los  Gatos 

loce  ga'tos 

The  Cats 

Los  Olivos 

loce  ol-6'voce 

The  Olive  Trees 

Manzanita 

man-sa-nee'tah 

Little  Apple 

Milpitas 

mil-pee'tas 

Meadow 

Monte  Diablo 

mon'ta  de-a'blo 

Devil  Mountain 

Pajaro 

pa'ha^ro 

Bird 

Palo  Alto 

pa'lo  al'to 

Tall  Tree 

Paraiso 

pa-ra-ee'so 

Paradise 

Paso  Robles 

pa'so  ro'bl^s 

Oak  Pass 

Pescadero 

pes-ka-da'ro 

Fishmonger 

Pinole 

pe-no'la 

A  Fermented  Drink 

Plaza 

pla'za 

Public  Square 

Presidio 

pra-see'de-o 

Garrison 

Punta  Arenas 

pun'ta  a-ra'nas 

Sandy  Point 

Puente 

poo-6n'ta 

Bridge 

Salinas 

sa-lee'nas 

Salt  Places 

Sierra  Nevada 

sS-er'ra  na-va'dft 

Snowy  Range 

644 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Soledad 
Sonora 
Tejon 
Tres  Pinos 


sol-a-dad' 
so-no'rah 
ta-hon' 
tr6s  pee'noce 


Solitude 
Zither 
Badger 
Three  Pines 


The  following  are  some  of  the  names  derived  from  the  old  Spanish  families :  — 
Alvarado  al-va-rah'do  Coronado  cor-o-nah'do 


Alviso 

al-ve'so 

Martinez 

mar-tee 'r 

Arguello 

ar-gwa'lo 

Pacheco 

pa-cha'k( 

Bodega 

bo-da'ga 

Suiiol 

soon-yol' 

Castroville 

kas'tro-va 

Vacaville 

va'ka-vil 

Chico 

chee'ko 

Vallejo 

val-la'ho 

The  following  are  some  of  the  many  Indian  names.    Most  of  them  are  names  ol 
tribes :  — 


Cuyama 

Klamath 

Mohave 

Mokelumne 

Petaluma 

Sequoia 

Soquel 

Suisun 

Tahoe 

Tehachapi 

Temescal 

Tomales 

Yosemite 

Yreka 


ki-a'ma 

kla'math 

mo-ha'va 

mo-kel'oum-ne 

pet-aloo'ma 

se-quoi'ah 

so-k61' 

soo-e'soon 

ta-ho' 

te-hach'e-pa 

tem-es-kal* 

to-ma'16s 

yo-sem'i-te 

wi-reHca 


Indians 

Three  Mountains 

Little  Mound 

Name  of  a  Cherokee  Chief 


Big  Water 
Valley  of  the  Oaks 
A  Sweatbox 
A  Mexican  Food 
Grizzly  Bear 

White,    Indian    Name   of 
Mt.  Shasta 


The  name  Tamalpais  is  a  compound  of  Indian  and  Spanish.  Tamal  was  the  nairs 
of  a  tribe  of  Indians,  and  pais  is  the  Spanish  for  country ;  hence,  the  country  of  the 
-Tamal  Indians. 

The  Spanish  names  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Coast  Ranges  and  the  southern  part 
of  the  state.  The  names  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Klamath  mountains  and  the  Great 
Valley  were  mostly  given  after  the  Americans  came. 

Among  the  places  named  for  Americans  are :  Stockton,  Sutter,  Kern,  Lassen, 
Murphy,  Angel,  Carson,  Downie,  Weaver,  Heald,  Folsom,  Gilroy,  Hollister,  Humboldt, 
Fremont,  and  others.    These  men  were  either  early  residents  of  the  s^ate,  or  explorers. 


INDEX 


Agriculture,  592-599. 
Alcatraz  Island,  561. 
Alfalfa,  586,  590,  591,  595. 
Alkali,  582. 
Almonds,  606. 
Angel  Island,  562,  Fig.  526. 
Antimony,  612. 
Appellate  Courts,  632. 
Apples,  606. 
Apricots,  586,  607. 
Area  of  California,  551. 
Army  transports,  622. 
Artesian  wells,  585. 
Artificial  gas,  618. 
Asparagus,  569. 
Asphaltum,  612,  615,  617. 

Bahia,  601. 

Bakersfield,  634. 

Barley,  586,  595. 

Barstow,  621. 

Beans,  569,  595. 

Beckwourth  Pass,  681,  621. 

Beet  sugar,  619. 

Benzine,  616. 

Berkeley,  630,  632. 

Berries,  595. 

Beryl,  612,  615. 

Big  Basin,  610,  Fig.  609. 

Big  Trees,  575,  610.      ' 

Bituminous  rock,  612,  615. 

Blind,  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  the,  ( 

Board  of  supervisors,  632. 

Borax,  583,  618. 

Brazil,  601. 

Brick  clay,  612,  615. 

British  Columbia,  624. 

Buena  Vista  Lake,  566. 

Building  materials,  612,  615. 

Burbank,  Luther,  605. 

Burbank  School,  605. 

Butte  County,  615. 

Butter,  690,  592,  693. 

CabrUlo,  624. 
Cactus,  spineless,  605. 

48— A  « 


CajonPass,  581,  621. 

Calaveras  Grove,  575. 

California,  Area  of,  551. 

California,  Gulf  of,  584. 

California  Northwestern  Railroad,  621. 

Canada,  599. 

Canneries,  593,  619. 

Caiions,  571,  672,  679,  582,  Figs.  640,  546 

Cantaloupes,  586. 

Cape  Mendocino,  562. 

Capes,  562. 

Captain  Jack,  681. 

Carquinez  Straits,  655,  657. 

Cascade  Range,  680. 

Cattle,  593,  595,  619. 

Cedar,  611. 

Celery,  669. 

Cement,  612;  works,  619. 

Central  California,  605. 

Central  Pacific  Railroad,  581, 621,  Fig.  563 

Cherries,  606. 

Chicago,  621. 

Chickens,  593-594. 

Chico,  630. 

Chile,  618. 

Cities,  634-635  ;  population  of,  639. 

Citrus  fruits,  601-603  ;  in  Central  Califor- 
nia, 005 ;  in  Northern  California,  605. 

Clay,  Brick,  612,  615. 

Clear  Lake,  564,  Fig.  539. 

Climate,  551,  555,  564,  566,  582,  Fig.  564. 

Coal,  612  ;  lignite,  615. 

Coast  Range,  552,  554,  561,  666,  692,  610, 
615,  Fig.  516. 

Coast  Region,  562,  654-565,  666,  673,  621. 

Colleges,  627,  632  ;  sectarian,  632. 

Colorado  Desert,  582. 

Colorado  River,  684,  585,  621. 

Commerce,  620,  622,  634;  with  Orient, 
627. 

Copper,  683,  612,  614;  smelting,  619, 
Fig.  614. 

Corn,  593. 

Coronado,  566. 

Cottonwoods,  566. 

Counties,  632;  population  of,  641. 

645 


646 


INDEX 


County  Superior  Courts,  632. 
Cows,  milch,  695. 
Creameries,  592,  619. 
Crescent  City,  622. 

Dairy  products,  value  of,  638. 

Dairying,  589-692. 

Deaf  and  Blind,  Institution  for  the,  630. 

Death  Valley,  582. 

Deciduous  fruits,  606. 

Del  Norte  County,  610. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  601. 

Desert,  551,  582,  583,  584,  586,  618,  626. 

Desert  Province,  653. 

Diablo,  Mt.,  615. 

Diamond,  612,  616. 

Distillate,  616. 

Donner  Pass,  581,  Fig.  563. 

Drake,  624. 

Dredger  mining,  613,  Fig.  613. 

Dry  ranching,  595. 

Earthquakes,  623-624. 

Education  and  Government,  627-632. 

Eggs,  693,  594 ;  value  of,  638. 

El  Dorado  County,  571. 

Electric  railroads,  622. 

Electricity,  573,  618. 

Elevation  of  surface  of  California,  561. 

Eureka,  634. 

Factories,  618,  619;  canneries,  593,  619; 
creameries,  692,  619;  flour  mills,  619; 
sawmills,  611,  619;  oil  refineries,  616, 
61*"  sugar  refineries,  619 ;  smelters, 
619  ;  tanneries,  619 ;  woolen  mills,  619. 

Fall  River,  580. 

Farallone  Islands,  561,  Fig.  617. 

Farm  animals  and  products,  value  of,  639. 

Farm  products,  638. 

Fertilizers,  618. 

Field  crops,  value  of,  638-639. 

Fir,  611. 

Fisheries,  value  of,  639. 

Fishing,  679,  Fig.  660. 

Flour  mills,  619. 

Fogs,  656,  566. 

Forest,  petrified,  612. 

Forest  products,  value  of,  6S8 . 

Foresters,  610. 


Forests,  571,  674,  576,  579. 

Forts,  561. 

Foundries,  619. 

Fresno,  606,  634. 

Fresno  County,  616. 

Fruit  raising,  671,  593,  599-608. 

Garden  products,  value  of,  638. 

Garnet,  612. 

Gas,  artificial,  618  ;  natural,  612,  618. 

Gasoline,  616. 

Gem  stones,  583,  612,  615. 

Goat  Island,  561,  Fig.  525. 

Gold,  571,  672,  583,  612;  smelting,  619. 

Golden  Gate,  568. 

Golden  State,  612. 

Government,  632. 

Governor,  632. 

Grain,  593,  595. 

Grain  and  grass  hay  and  alfalfa,  value 

of,  638. 
Granite,  612,  615. 
Grape  fruit,  601. 
Grapes,  586,  606 ;  wine  grapes,  606,  Fig. 

603. 
Great  Valley,  552,  621. 
Great  Valley  Region,  562,  555,  565-670, 

573,  595,  621. 
Grizzly  Giant,  676. 

Harbors,  655-668. 

Hartnell  Gusher,  617. 

Hay,  586,  693 ;  value  of,  638. 

Health  resorts,  564. 

Height  of  mountains,  640. 

Hides,  619. 

High  Sierras,  676,  579,  Fig.  566. 

Hogs,  695. 

Honey,  608,  Fig.  606;  value  of,  638. 

Hops,  593,  606,  Fig.  602. 

Horses,  595.  • 

Humboldt  Bay,  658,  622,  Fig.  532. 

Humboldt  County,  610. 

Hume  Prune  Orchard,  607. 

Huntington  Beach,  565. 

Immigration,  626. 
Imperial  County,  686-586. 
Indian  names,  643-^44. 
Indians,  624 ;  Modoc,  681. 


INDET 


647 


Industrial  School,  630. 

Inyo  County,  683,  623. 

lone,  630. 

Iron,  612,  614. 

Irrigation,  566,  569,  585,  588.    , 

Islands,  561-562. 

Judicial  Department,  632. 
Justice,  Courts  of,  632. 

Kaweah  River,  566. 
Kern  County,  616,  Fig.  615. 
Kern  River,  556,  578,  Fig.  558. 
Kern  River  oil  fields,  617. 
Kerosene,  616. 
Kings  River,  566,  578. 
Klamath  Province,  553. 
Kunzite,  615. 

Lake  County,  564. 

Lakes,  566,  579,  582. 

Lassen  County,  580. 

Lassen  Peak,  580. 

Lead,  583,  612,  614;  smelting,  619. 

Leather,  619. 

Legislature,  State,  632,  Fig.  630. 

Leland  Stanford  University,  632. 

Lemons,  601,  605-606. 

Levees,  569. 

Lignite,  615. 

Lime,  612,  615. 

Lime  Cfruit),  601. 

Long  Beach,  565. 

Los  Angeles,  558,  588,  621,  626,  630,  632, 

634,  Figs.  154,  574,  625. 
Los  Angeles  County,  601,  616. 
Lubricating  oil,  616. 
Lumber,  shipping,  622. 
Lumbering,  671,  608-612,  Figs.  140,  143, 

608,  610. 
Luther  Burbank  School,  605. 

Manufacturing,  618-620. 

Marble,  612,  615. 

Mare  Island,  561,  Fig.  533. 

Mariposa  County,  671,  576,  Fig.  152. 

Match  factories,  619. 

Melons,  586. 

Mendocino  County,  610,  623. 

Men-of-war,  622. 


Merced  River,  676. 

Mexico,  601,  624. 

Military  prison,  561. 

Milk,  592. 

Mineral  products,  683,  612-618  ;  value  of, 

639. 
Mineral  springs,  564. 
Mining,    571,     583;     dredger,    612-614; 

hydraulic,    669,    571,    572,    Fig.    136; 

placer,  671,  672,  Fig.  648;  quartz,  672, 

Fig.  138. 
Mining  machinery,  619. 
Missions,  Spanish,  626. 
Modoc  County,  681. 
Modoc  Indians,  681. 
Modoc  War,  581. 
Mojave  Desert,  582,  621. 
Monterey,  565. 

Monterey  Bay,  568,  626,  Fig.  531. 
Monterey  County,  610. 
Morro  Rock,  562,  Fig.  536. 
Mother  Lode,  671,  612,  627. 
Mt.  Diablo  Range,  555. 
Mountains,  561,  552,  563,  564,  670,  671, 

682,  586,  615,  620,  621 ;  growth  of,  623  ; 

height  of,  640. 

Napa,  606,  615. 

Naphtha,  616. 

National  forests,  575. 

Natural  gas,  612,  618. 

Naval  training  station,  561. 

Navy  yard,  561. 

Needles,  621. 

Nevada,  673,  621. 

New  Orleans,  621. 

New  York,  621. 

Newport,  665. 

Niter,  583. 

Normal  Schools,  627. 

Northern  California,  605. 

Oak  trees,  566. 
Oakland,  561,  634. 
Occidental  College,  632. 
Ocean  currents,  655. 
Ocean  Park,  565. 
Ogden,  621. 
Oil,  lubricating,  616. 
Oil,  mineral,  612,  6ia 


648 


INDEX 


Oil  fields,  616-618,  Fig.  615. 

Olive  oil,  608 ;  factories,  619. 

Olives,  608,  Fig.  605. 

Onions,  669. 

Opal,  583,  612,  615. 

Oranges,    589,    601-603,   605,   Figs.   591, 

594,  596. 
Orchards,  593,  608;    value  of  products, 

638. 
Oregon,  580,  610,  621. 
Orphan  schools,  632. 
Owei.£  Lake,  583. 

Pacific  Grove,  565. 

Palo  Alto,  632. 

Panama  Canal,  620. 

Paraffin,  616. 

Parochial  schools,  632. 

Peaches,  586, 607. 

Pears,  607. 

Petrified  forest,  612. 

Petroleum,  612,  615,  616-618. 

Pine,  611  ;  yellow,  611 ;  sugar,  611. 

Pismo,  565. 

Pitt  River,  580. 

Plateau,  volcanic,  580. 

Platinum,  612. 

Pleasure  resorts,  565,  Fig.  538. 

Point  Conception,  562,  Fig.  537. 

Point  Richmond,  616. 

Police  Courts,  632. 

Polytechnic  school,  630. 

Pomelos,  601. 

Pomona  College,  632. 

Population,  of  cities  and  towns,  639-640 ; 

of  counties,  641-642  ;  of  state,  639. 
Portland,  621. 
Potato,  605. 

Poultry,  593-594  ;  value  of,  638. 
Powder  works,  619. 
Private  schools,  630. 
Products  of  the  soil,  value  of,  638-639. 
Prunes,  607,  Figs.  600-604. 
Public  schools,  627,  Figs.  625-626. 

Quicksilver,  612,  615. 

Railroads,  593,  620-622  ;  electric,  622. 
Rainfall,  551.  564,  566.  574. 
Raisins,  606,  Fig.  14D. 


Rangers,  575,  610,  Fig.  554. 

Reclaimed  land,  669. 

Redwood,  676,  610. 

Refineries,  oil,  616 ;  sugar,  619,  Fig.  616. 

Revolutionary  War,  624. 

Rivers,  572-575. 

Riverside  County,  601,  615. 

Sacramento,  606,  634,  635. 

Sacramento  River,  557,  569. 

Sacramento-San  Joaquin  River,  557. 

Sacramento  Valley,  569,  621,  Fig.  642. 

Salinas,  606. 

Salt,  583,  584. 

Salt  Lake  Railroad,  621. 

Salton  Sea,  582,  683,  584. 

San  Benito  County,  615. 

San  Bernardino,  621. 

San  Bernardino,  Mt.,  555. 

San  Bernardino  County,  583,  601,  615. 

San  Bernardino  Mountains,  682,  685. 

San  Buenaventura,  626. 

San  Diego,  607,  621,  622,  626,  630,  634. 

San  Diego  Bay,  658,  Fig.  529. 

San  Diego  County,  615. 

San  Francisco,  561,  621,  622,  623,   626, 

630,  634,  Figs.  525,  526. 
San  Francisco  Bay,  555,  568,  619,  626. 
San  Gabriel,  682. 
San  Gorgonio  Pass,  581. 
San  Jacinto  Mountains,  582,  585. 
San  Joaquin,  606. 
San  Joaquin  River,  557,  666,  669. 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  566,  Fig.  542, 
San  Jos^,  606,  630,  632. 
San  Luis  Buttes,  562. 
San  Luis  Obispo,  562,  630. 
San  Luis  Obispo  County,  615. 
San  Pedro,  558. 
Sandstone,  612,  615. 
Santa  Barbara,  665,  626. 
Santa  Barbara  Channel,  662. 
Santa  Barbara  County,  562,  616,  617. 
Santa  Barbara  Islands,  562. 
Santa  Catalina,  565. 
Santa  Clara,  626,  632. 
Santa  Clara  College,  632. 
Santa  Clara  County,  615. 
Santa  Clara  Valley,  565,  607 


OfDEX 


640 


Santa  Cruz,  565. 

Santa  Cruz  County,  810. 

Santa  F^  Railroad,  581,  621. 

Santa  Monica,  505. 

Santa  Rosa,  606,  634. 

Sawmills,  611. 

Schools,    627-632;   private,  630;  public, 

627  ;  special,  630. 
Sectarian  colleges,  637. 
Sequoia,    Gigantea,    576;    Sempervirens, 

575. 
Shasta  County,  580. 
Shasta  daisy,  605. 
Shasta,  Mt.,  580. 
Sheep,  593,  595,  619. 
Shipbuilding,  562,  619. 
Shipping,  622. 

Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  582,  586. 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  553,  565,  566, 

570,  572,  573,  575,  576,  612  ;  streams  of, 

572,  618,  621,  627,  Figs.  540,  563. 
Sierra  Region,  552,  570-581. 
Silver,  583,  612  ;  smelting,  619. 
Siskiyou  County,  580. 
Slate,  612. 
Smelters,  619. 
Soda,  583,  Fig.  566. 
Soda  Bay,  564. 
Sonoma  County,  612,  626. 
Sorghum,  586. 
Southern  California,  553,  655,  664,  582- 

589,  595,  615,  623. 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  581,  616,  620. 
Spain,  624. 
Spaniards,  624,  626. 
Special  schools,  630. 
Standard  Oil  Company,  616. 
Stanford  University,  632. 
Statehood,   Admission  of    California  to, 

627. 
Steamship  lines,  622. 
Stock  raising,  671,  695. 
Stockton,  634. 
Strawberries,  606. 
Sugar  beets,  695. 
Sugar  pine,  611. 
Sugar  refineries,  619. 
Supreme  Court,  632. 

Tahoe,  Lake,  678,  Fig.  659. 


Tanneries,  619. 

Tehachapi  Loop,  666. 

Tehachapi  Mountains,  664,  566,  682 

Tehachapi  Pass,  666,  621. 

Timber,  576,  576,  608-612. 

Tin,  612. 

Tourmaline,  612,  616. 

Transportation,  620-622. 

Trolley  lines,  622. 

Tulare,  606. 

Tulare  County,  605. 

Tulare  Lake,  566. 

Tule  Land,  669. 

Tuolumne  Grove,  675. 

Turquoise,  683,  612,  615. 

United  States  Government,  561,  562,  675, 

Fig.  85. 
Universities,  632. 
University  of  California,  632. 
University  of  the  Pacific,  632. 
University  of  Southern  California,  632. 

Vacaville,  606. 

Valleys,  551,  566,  571,  682,  686,  692,  597, 

620. 
Vegetables,  686,  595. 
Ventura  County,  562,  616. 
Vineyards,  593,  606 ;  value  of  products, 

638. 
Virginia,  624. 

Volcanic  Plateau,  663,  580. 
Volcanoes,  580,  623. 

Walnuts,  606. 

War  vessels,  622. 

Water  power,  573,  618. 

Watsonville,  606. 

Western  Pacific  Railroad,  681,  621. 

Wheat,  595  ;  shipping,  622. 

Whittier,  630. 

Willows,  566. 

Winds,  552,  655. 

Wine,  593,  619. 

Wine  grapes,  606. 

Wineries,  619. 

Woolen  mills,  619. 

Yellow  pine,  611. 
Yosemite  Falls,  676,  Fig.  A. 
Yosemite  Valley,  576,  Fig.  557. 


APPENDIX   I 


TABLES  OF  AREA,  POPULATiQN,  ETC. 

Note. — The  figures,  1910,  etc.,  refer  to  the  year  in  which  the  Census  was  taken 
or  the  estimate  was  made.  Most  of  the  recent  figures  are  obtained  from  the  United 
States  Census  Reports  of  1910  or  from  "The  Statesman's  Year  Book,"  1913. 

— — •Or*<0«— — 


SIZE  OF  EARTH 


Length  of  Earth's  Diameter  at  the 

Equator  (miles), 
Length  of  Equator  (miles), 


fnciftc 


7,926 
24,902 


The  Earth's  Surface  (square  miles) 
Total  Area  of  Ocean  (square  miles) 


196,940,000 
141,486,000 


IrhMarx, 


Arctic 


Relative  areas  of  oceans. 


At  title  fJQWOO 


The  Antarctic  includes  the  great  southern  sea  surrounding 
the  south  pole. 


CONTINENTS  AND   PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES,   COLONIES,   ETC. 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 

lorth  America 8,500,000 

Alaska,  1910 590.884 

Antigua,  1911 170 

Bahama  Islands,  1911 5,450 

Bermuda  Islands,  1911 20 

British  Honduras,  1911 8,598 

Canada,  1911 3,603,910 

Costa  Rica,  1910 18-400 

Cuba,  1910 44'000 

Greenland,  1901 46,740 

Guatemala,  1910  48,290 

Haiti  (Island),  1909 10,204 

Honduras,  1910 46,250 

Jamaica,  1910 4.200 

Mexico,  1910    767,005 

Newfoundland,  1910 42,734 

Labrador,  1910 120,000 

Nicaragua,  1910 49,200 

Panama,  1909  81,500 

St.  Croix,  1901 84 

St.  Thomas,  1901  82 

Salvador,  1910  7,225 

United  States,  see  p.  iii 

Soutli  America 7,400,000 

Argentina,  1910 1,185,840 

Bolivia,  1910 708,195 

Brazil,  1908  3,218,991 

Chile,  1910 292,580 


Population 


64,356 
88,899 
55,944 
18,994 

40,458 

7,192,338 

379,5:33 

2,150,112 

11,893 

1,992,000 

2,029,700 

553,446 

862.422 

:I5,063,207 

237,531 

4,076 

600,000 

419,029 

18,401 

11,269 
1,070,555 


49,000,000 

7,091.822 

2,267,935 

21,461,100 

3,829,030 


.116,000 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Colombia,  1908  438,436 

Ecuador,  1910 
Galapagos  Islands,  1910 

Falkland  Islands,  1911   5,500 

Guiana,  British,  1911 90,277 

Guiana,  Dutch,  1910  46,060 

Guiana,  French,  1911 80,500 

Paraguay,  1910 171,204 

Peru,  1910 695,788 

South  Georgia  Islands  1 ,000 

Tobago,  1911 114  > 

Trinidad  Island,  1911 1,754  j 

Uruguay,  1910 72.210 

Venezuela,  1911 393.976 

Europe 3,796,000 

Albania,  1913 10,900 

Andorra 175 

Austria,  1910 115,903 

Austria  Hungary,  1910 261,100 

Balearic  Isles,  1910 1,935 

Belgium,  1910 11,878 

British  Empire,  1910 11,454,862 

British  Isles,  1910 121,390 

Bulgaria,  1913 48,860 

Corsica,  1906 8,867 

Crete.  1900  8,365 

Denmark,  1906 15,592 

England,  1901  50,874 

England  and  Wales,  1909 58,824 


Population 

4,308,000 

1,500,000 

2,272 
296,000 

85,094 

49.009 

752,000 

4,000,000 

uninhabited 

880,074 

1.112,000 
2,718,703 

392,246,000 

900,000 

5.231 

28,567,898 

51,823,921 

325,703 

7,516,730 

897,261,509 

45,469,564 

4,800.000 

291,160 

310,185 

2.605,268 
81,071,708 
35,756,615 


AREA,   POPULATION,  ETC. 


Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

Faroe  Islands,  1901 540  16,349 

France,  1906 207,054  39,252,245 

German  Empire,  1905 208,780  60,641,278 

Great  Britain,  1909   88,729  40,634,263 

Greece,  1913 46,600  4,fi00,000 

Hebrides  Islands, 3,000  100,000 

Hungary,  1900 125,43(>  19,254,569 

Iceland,  1901  39,756  78,470 

Ireland,  1909 32,360  4,374,158 

Italy,  1909 110,659  34,269,746 

Liechtenstein,  1906 65  9,650 

Luxemburg,  1900 1,706  219,210 

Malta,  1909  95  212,888 

Monaco,  1909 8  19,121 

Montenegro,  1913 5,600  500,000 

Netherlands,  1908  12,&48  5.825, 198 

Norway,  1908 • 124,130  2,352,786 

Orkney  Islands,  1901 376  28,699 

Portugal,  1900 35,490  5,423, 132 

Prussia,  1905 134,616  37,293,324 

Eoumania,  1913 54,300  7,400,000 

Kussia,  1908  1,862,524  113,841,000 

Russian  Empire,  1908 8,647,657  155,433,300 

San  Marino,  1909 38  10,310 

Sardinia,  1909  9,306  861,249 

Scotland,  1909 30,405  4,877,648 

Servia,  1913 33,600  4,300,000 

Shetland  Islands,  1901 551  28,166 

Sicily,  1909 9,935  3,574,424 

Spain,  1908 194,783  19,712,585 

Sweden,  1908 172,876  5,429,600 

Switzerland,  1903 15,976  3,559,349 

Turkey,  1913 9,700  1,600,000 

Turkish  Empire,  1913 1,509,350  30,869,800 

Wales,  1911 7,450  2,032,193 

Asia  with  East  Indies  21,000,000  900,000.000 

Aden,  1911    75  46,165 

Afghanistan,  1 911   250,000  5,900,000 

Arabia  1,200,000  4,825,000 

Baluchistan,  1911 134,638  829,712 

Bhutan,  1909 20,000  250,000 

Bokhara,  1909 83,000  1,250,000 

Burma,  1911 236,738  12,115,217 

Ceylon,  1911 25,332  3,592,397 

China  (proper),  1906 1,532,420  407,253,030 

Republic  of  China,  1910 4,277,170  438,425,000 

Chinese  Turkestan,  1906  . . .  .550,340  1,200,000 

Cyprus,  1910 3,584  261,587 

Formosa,  1910 13,458  3,123,471 

French  India,  1909    196  277,000 

French  Indo-China,  1906  256,000  16,315,063 

India,  1911    1,789,154  315,132,537 

Japan,  1910    147,655  50,751,919 

Khiva,  1909    24,000  800,000 

Korea,  1911    86,000  13,125,027 

Manchuria,  1909 363,610  16,000,000 

IVf  ongolia,  1906 1 ,367,600  2,600,000 

Nepal,  1909 54,000  5,"00,00a 

Oman,  1909 82,000  500,000 

Palestine,  1905 10,000  700,000 

Persia,  1909    628,000  9,500,000 

Portuguese  Indies,  1901 7,330  300,000 

Russia  in  Asia,  1910 6,207,662  24,889,'ooo 

Siam,  1909 195,000  6,686,486 

Siberia,  1910 4,786,730  8,220,100 

Straits  Settlements,  1911 1,472  714,069 


Square  Miles  Population 

Sungaria,  1901 147,950  600,000 

Tibet,  1909    463,200  6,500,000 

Turkey  in  Asia,  1909    693,610  17,683,500 

Africa 11,000,000  125,000,000 

Abyssinia,  1910 432,482  5,000,000 

Algeria  (Fr.),  1911 343,500  5,563,828 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  1909  .950,000  2,363  000 

Angola,  1909    484,800  4,119,000 

Belgian  Congo,  1909    909,650  20,000,000 

British  Somaliland,  1910 68,000  348,000 

Canary  Islands  (Sp.),  1910 2,807  419,809 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1910    ...276,995  2,510,000 
Cape  Verde  Islands  (Port.), 

1909 1,480  147,424 

Egypt,  1907 400,000  11,189,978 

Eritrea  (Italy),  1906    45,800  450,000 

French  Congo,  1907 669,280  5,000,000 

French  Somaliland,  1907    5,790  180,000 

Gambia  (Br.),  1910    3,619  160,000 

German  East  Africa,  1909    ...384,180  10,000,000 

German  Southwest  Africa, 

1909 322,450  120,000 

Gold  Coast  and  Protectorate, 

1910 119,200  1,500,000 

Italian  Somaliland.  1909    139,430  400,000 

Kamerun  (Ger.),  1909 191,180  3,000,000 

Liberia,  1909 40,000  j  1;^00,000- 

Madagascar,  1911    228,000  3,054,658 

Madeira  Islands,  1900 314  150,574 

Mauritius  ( Br. ),  1910 835  379,184 

Morocco,  1909 219,000  -j  4'58S'ooo" 

Natal,  1911 35,371  1,191,958 

Nigeria,  Northern,  1911    256,400  9,269,000 

Nigeria,  Southern,  1911    77,260  7,858,689 

Orange  Free  State",  1910 50,392  478,815 

Portuguese  East  Africa,  1901  293,400  3,120,000 

Portuguese  Guinea,  1901   18,940  820,000 

Reunion  Island  (Fr.),  1907 910  201,000 

St.  Helena  (Br.),  1911 47  8,520 

Sierra  Leone  and  Protectorate  (Br.), 

1910  80,000  1,100,000 

Spanish  Africa,  1910    85,814  235,844 

Togo,  1910 33,700  1,000,000 

Transvaal,  1910 110,426  1,400,000 

Tripoli  (Turk.),  1906 898,900  1,000,000 

Tunis  (Fr.),  1910 45,779  1,923,217 

Uganda  Protectorate,  1910  . .  .223,500  3,500,000 

Zanzibar  (Br.),  1910 1,020  200,000 

Australia,  Commonwealth  of . . .  8,000,000  4,400,000 

New  South  Wales,  1910 310,372  1,621,677 

Northern  Territory,  1910  . . .  .523,620  3,289 

Queensland,  1910 670,500  572,654 

South  Australia,  191(t 380,070  412,808 

Tasmania,  1910 26,215  186,860 

Victoria,  1911 87,884  1,315,000 

Western  Australia,  1911 975,920  283,986 

East  Indies  and  larger  islands  of  the 

Pacific 1,200,000  47,000,000 

Borneo,  1905 298,843  1,944,655 

Celebes,  1905 71.470  851,905 

Fiji  Islands,  1910 7,740  188,831 

Hawaiian  Islands,  1910 6,449  191,909 

Java  and  Madura,  1905 50,554  30,098,008 


APPENDIX 


111 


Area  in 

Square  Miles 

Population 

Molucca  Islands,  1905  . . 

48,864 

407,906 

New  Caledonia,  1911  ... 

7,650 

55,000 

New  Guinea 

British  Guinea,  1910   . 

151,789 

200,000 

Dutch  Guinea,  1905  .. 

90,540 

351,603 

German  Guinea,  1910  . 

95,160 

356,000 

Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

New  Zealand,  1910  104,751  1,048,347 

Philippine  Islands,  1910     ....115,026  8,276,802 

Samoa  Islands,  1910 1,079  41,140 

Solomon  Islands  TBr.),  1910  ..12,000  150,310 

Solomon  Islands  (Ger.) 4,200 

Sumatra,  1905 161,612  4,029,503 


Total  Area  of  Continents  56.000,000 

Total  Population : 1,700,000,000 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES   OF  THE    UNITED  STATES 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Alabama 51,993 

Alaska 590,884 

Arizona 113,956 

Arkansas 5:3,335 

California  158,297 

Colorado  103,948 

Connecticut 4,965 

Delaware    2,370 

District  of  Columbia  70 
Florida    58,666 

Georgia 59,265 

Guam    210 

Hawaiian  Islands  .6.449 

Idaho  ,...84,313 

Illinois 56,665 

Indiana  36,354 

Iowa 56,147 

Kansas 82,158 

Kentucky 40,598 

Louisiana  48,506 

Maine 33,040 

Maryland   12,327 

Massachusetts 8,266 

Michigan 57,980 

Minnesota 84,682 

Mississippi 46,865 

.Jissouri   69,420 

Montana 146,572 

Nebraska 77,520 

Nevada  110,690 


Population 
1900 

Population 
1910 

1,828,697 

63,592 

122,931 

1,311,5(V4 

1,485,053 

2,138,093 

64,356 

204,354 

1,574,449 

2,377,549 

539,700 
908,420 
184,735 

278,718 
528,542 

799,024 
1,114,756 
202,322 
331,069 
752,619 

2,216.331 

8,561 

154,001 

161.772 

4,821,550 

2,609,121 

11,973 

191,909 

325,594 

5,638,591 

2,516,462 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1,381,625 

2,700.876 
2,224,771 
1,690,949 
2,289,905 
1,656,388 

694,466 
1,188,044 
2,805,346 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 

742,871 
1,295,346 
3,366,416 
2,810,173 

2,075,708 

1,551,270 

3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,885 

1,797,114 

3,293,335 

376,053 

1,192,214 

81,875 

Area  in  Population  Population 

Square  Miles  1900  1910 

New  Hampshire  ....9,341  411,588  430,572 

New  Jersey 8,224  1,88^3,669  2,537,167 

New  Mexico    122,634  195,310  327,301 

New  York   49,204  7,268,894  9,113,614 

North  Carolina 52,426  1,893,810  2,206,287 

North  Dakota 70,S;37  319,146  557,056 

Ohio  41,040  4,157,545  4,767,121 

Oklahoma 70,057  790,391  1,657,155 

Oregon    96,699  413,536  672,766 

Pennsylvania 45,126  6,302,115  7,665,111 

Philippine  Is 127,853  7,360,551  8,276,802 

Porto  Rico 3,606  962,019  1,118,012 

Rhode  Island 1,248  428,556  542,610 

South  Carolina 30,989  1,340,816  1,515,400 

South  Dakota  77,615  401,570  583,888 

Tennessee 42,022  2,020,616  2,184,789 

Texas 265,896  3,048,710  8,896,542 

Tutuila  77  8,800  6,780 

Utah 84.990  276,749  378,351 

Vermont 9,564  848,641  855,956 

Virginia    42,627  1,854,184  2,061.612 

Washington 69,127  518,108  1,141,990 

West  Virginia 24,170  958,800  1,221,119 

Wisconsin    56,066  2,069,042  2,383,860 

Wyoming 97,914  92,531  145,965 

United  States,  totiil  3.624,122  77,256,630  93,402,151 
United  States  (without  Alaska,  Pliilippine 

Islands,  etc.) 3,026,789  76,994,575  91,972,266 


TWENTY-FIVE  OF  THE   LARGEST  CITIES   IN  THE  WORLD 


Population 

1.  London,  England,  1910 4,872,702 

Greater  London,  1910   7,537.196 

2.  New  York,  U.S.,  1910 4,766,883 

3.  Paris,  France,  1911 2,S46.9S6 

4.  Tokyo,  Jai.an,  1909 2.1()S,069 

5.  Chicago,  U.S.,  1910 2,185,283 

6.  Berlin,  Germany.  1910 2,070,095 

7.  Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1911 2,004,291 

8.  Petrograd.  Russia,  1910  ' .' 1,907,708 

9.  Canton,  China 1,600,000 

10.  Philadelphia,  U.S.,  1910 1,549,003 

11.  Moscow,  Russia,  1907 1,359,254 

12.  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1911 1,326,994 


Population 
18.    Calcutta,  India,  1910 1,216.514 

14.  Constantinople,  Turkey 1,125,(KM 

15.  Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,117,151 

16.  Slianghai,  China 1,000,000 

17.  Tientsin,  China,  1910 1,00(),(i0(t 

18.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1909 l,0(K),00() 

19.  Bombay,  India,  1910 972,892 

20.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1910 936,000 

21.  Liverpool,  England,  1910   767.606 

22.  Glasffow,  Scotland,  1909    872,021 

23.  Warsaw,  Russia,  1901 756.426 

24.  Budapest,  Austria-Hungary,  1901 732,822 

25.  Barcelona,  Spain,  1911   7iH),000 


IV 


AREA,  POPULATION,   ETC. 


TWENTY-FIVE  LARGEST  CITIES   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES 


Population  Population 

1900  1910 

New  York,  N.  Y 3,481,202  4,766,883 

Chicago,  111 1,698,575  2,185,283 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1,293,697  1,549,008 

St.  Louis,  Mo 575,238  687,029 

Boston,  Mass 560,892  670,585 

Cleveland,  Ohio 381,768  560,663 

Baltimore,  Md 508,957  558,485 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 321,616  533,905 

Detroit,  Mich 285,704  465.766 

Buffalo,  N.Y 352,387  423,715 

San  Francisco,  Cal 342,782  416,912 

Milwaukee,  Wis 285,315  373,857 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 325,902  364,463 


Population      Population 

1900  1910 

14.  Newark,  N.J 246,070  347,469 

15.  New  Orleans,  La 287,104  339,075 

16.  Washington,  D.C 278,718  331,069 

17.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 102.479  319,198 

18.  Minneapolis,  Minn 202,718  301,408 

19.  Jersey  City,  N.J 206,433  267,779 

20.  Kansas  City,  Mo 163,752  248,381 

21.  Seattle,  Wash 80,671  237,194 

22.  Indianapolis,  Ind 169,164  233,650 

23.  Providence,  R.I 175,597  224.326 

24.  Louisville,  Kv 204,781  223,928 

25.  Rochester,  n:Y 162,608  218,146 


GROWTH  OF  THE   FIFTEEN   LARGEST  CITIES  OF  THE  COUNTRY 


City                                 1800  laSO  1890                       1900  1910 

New  York,  N. Y 60,489  (1)  197,112  (1)  2,507,414  (1)  3,437,202  (1)  4,766,888 

Chicago,  111 4.470(1840)  1,099,850(2)  1,698,575(2)  2.185,288 

Philadelphia,  Pa 41,220(2)  80,462(3)  1,046,964(3)  1,293,697(3)  1,549,008 

St.  Louis,  Mo 10,049  ( 1820)  14,125  (7)  451,770  (4)             575,238  (4)  687,029 

Boston,  Mass 24,937(4)  61,392(4)  448,477(5)             560,892(5)  670,585 

Cleveland,  Ohio 606  (1820)  1,076  ( 12)  261,853  (9)             381,768  (7)  560,663 

Baltimore,  Md 26,514(3)  .80,620(2)  434,4;39  (0)             508,957(6)  558,485 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 1,565(5)  12,568(8)  238,617(12)           321,616(11)  533,905 

Detroit,  Mich 1,422(1820)  2.222(11)  205,876(13)           285,704(13)  465,766 

Buffalo,  N.Y 2',095  (1820)  8,668  (10)  255,664  (ID)           352,387  (8)  423,715 

San  Francisco,  Cal 298,997(7)             342.782(9)  416,912 

Milwaukee,  Wis 1,172(1840)  204,468(14)           285.315(14)  873,857 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 2,540(1810)  24,831(6)  296,908(6)             325,902(10)  364.468 

Newark,  N.J 8,008(1810)  10,953(9)  181,880(15)  246,070(15)  347'469 

New  Orleans,  La 17,242  (1810)  29,737  (5)  242,039  (11)  287,104  (12)  339,075 


CITIES   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES   WITH    25,000   OR  MORE    INHABITANTS    IN   1910 
A   FEW  OTHERS.  MOSTLY  MENTIONED   IN  THE   BOOK 


AND 


Popula-  Popula- 
tion, 1900  tion,  1910 

Akron,  Ohio 42,728  69,067 

Albany,  N.Y 94,151  100,253 

Albuquerque,  N.M 6,238  11,020 

Allentown,  Pa 85,416  51,913 

Altoona,  Pa 38,973  52,127 

Annapolis,  Md 8,575  8,609 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 14,509  14,817 

Asheville,  N.C 14,694  18,762 

Ashland,  Wis 18,074  11,594 

Astoria,  Ore 8,881  9,599 

Atchison,  Kan 15,722  16,429 

Atlanta,  Ga 89,872  154,839 

Atlantic  City,  N.J 27,838  46,150 

Auburn,  Me 12,951  15,064 

Auburn,  N.Y 30,845  34,668 

Angusta,  Ga 89,441  41,040 

Augusta,  Me 11,688  18,211 

Austin,  Tex 22,258  29,860 

Baltimore,  Md 508,957  558,485 

Bangor,  Me 21,850  24,803 

Bath,  Me.  „ 10,477  9,396 

Baton  Rouge,  La 11,269  14,897 

Bay  City,  Mich 40,747  45,166 

Bayonne,  N.J 32,722  55,545 

Berkeley,  Cal 13,214  40,434 

Biddeford.  Me 16,145  17,079 

Billings,  Mont 3,221  10,031 

Binghamton,  N.Y 39,647  48,443 

Birmingham,  Ala 88,415  182,685 

Bismarck,  N.D 3  819  5,448 


Popula-  Popula- 
tion, 1900  tion,  1910 

Boise,  Idaho 5,957  17,358 

Boston,  Mass 560,892  670,585 

Bradford,  Pa 15,029  14,544 

Bridgeport,  Conn 70,996  102,054 

Brockton,  Mass   40,063  56,878 

Brunswick,  Ga 9,081  10,182 

Buffalo,  N.Y 352,387  423,715 

Burlington,  Vt 18,640  20,463 

Butte,  Mont 30,470  39,165 

Cambridge,  Mass 91,886  104,889 

Camden,  N  J 75,985  94,538 

Canton,  Ohio 80,667  50,217 

Carson  City,  Nev 2, 100  2,466 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 25.656  32,811 

Charleston,  S.C 55,807  58,833 

Charleston,  W.  Va 1 1 ,099  22,996 

Charlotte,  N.C 18,091  34,014 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 80,154  44,604 

Chelsea,  Mass 84,072  32,452 

Chester,  Pa 83,988  38,537 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 14,087  11,320 

Chicago,  111 1,698,575  2,185,283 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 825,902  364,468 

Cleveland,  Ohio 381,768  560,663 

Colorado  Springs,  Colo 21,085  29,078 

Columbia.  S.C 21,108  26,319 

Columbus,  Ga 17,614  20,554 

Columbus.  Ohio 125,560  181,548 

Concord,  N.H 19,632  21,497 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa 25,802  29,292 


APPENDIX 


Popula-  Popula- 
tion, 1900        tion,  1910 

Covington,  Ky 42,938  53,2T0 

Cripple  Creek,  Colo 10,147  6,206 

Dallas,  Tex 42  638  92,104 

Danville.  Va 16,520  19,020 

Davenport,  Iowa 85,254  43,028 

Dayton,  Ohio 85,333  116,577 

Denver,  Colo 133,859  213,381 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 62,139  80,368 

Detroit,  Mich 285,704  465,766 

Dover,  Del 3,329  3,720 

Dover,  N:H 13,207  13,247 

Dubuque,  Iowa 36,297  38,494 

Duluth,  Minn 52,969  78,466 

Durham,  N.C 6,679  18,241 

Easton,  Pa. , 25,238  28,523 

East  St.  Louis,  111 29,655  58,547 

Elizabeth,  N.J 52,180  73,409 

Elmira,  N.Y 85,672  87,176 

El  Paso,  Tex 15,906  39,279 

Erie,  Pa 52,733  66,525 

EvansvlUe,  Ind 59,007  69,647 

Fall  Kiver,  Mass 104,863  119,295 

Findlay,  Ohio 17,618  14,858 

Fitchburg,  Mass 31,531  37,826 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 45, 1 15  63,933 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 26,688  78,812 

Frankfort,  Ky 9,487  10,465 

Fresno,  ( 'al 12,470  24,892 

Galveston,  Tex 37,789  36,981 

Gloucester,  Mass 26,121  24,398 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 87,565  112,571 

Greeley,  Colo 3,023  8,179 

Greenville,  S.C 1 1,860  15,741 

Guthrie,  Okla 10,006  11,654 

Harrisburg,  Pa 50,167  64,186 

Hartford,  Conn 79,850  98,915 

Haverhill,  Mass 37,175  44,115 

Helena  Mont 10,770  12,515 

Hilo,  Hawaiian  Islands 19,785  6,745 

Iloboken,  N.J 59,364  70,324 

Holyoke,  Mass 45,712  57,730 

Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands  . .  .39.806  52.183 

Hot  Springs.  Ark 9,973  14,434 

Houston,  Tex 44,6;38  78,800 

Indianapolis,  Ind 169,164  238,650 

Ishpeming,  Mich 13,255  12,448 

Ithaca,  N.Y 18,136  14,802 

Jackson,  Mich 25,180  31,433 

Jackson,  Miss 7,816  21,262 

JacksonvUle,  Fla 28,429  57,699 

Jamestown.  N.Y 22,892  31,297 

Jefferson  City,  Mo 9.664  11,850 

Jersey  City,  N.J 206.483  267,779 

Johnstown,  Pa 85,936  55,482 

Joliet,  111 29,858  34,670 

Joplin,  Mo 26,023  32,073 

Juneau,  Alaska 1,864  1,644 

Kansas  City,  rvan 51,418  82,881 

Kansas  City.  Mo 163,752  248,881 

Key  West,  Fla 17,114  19,945 

Knoxville,  Tenn 32,637  36,346 

La  Crosse,  Wis 28,895  30,417 

Lancaster,  Pa 41,459  47,227 

Lansing,  Mich 16,485  81,229 

Laramie,  Wyo 8,207  8,287 

Lawrence,  Mass 62,559  85,892 

Lead ville,  Colo 12.455  7,508 

Lewiston,  Me 23,761  26,247 

Lexington,  Ky 26,869  35.099 

Lincoln,  Neb 40,169  43,973 


Popula- 
tion, 1900 

Little  Rock,  Ark 38,307 

Lockport,  N.Y 16,581 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 127,927 

Louisville,  Ky 204,731 

Lowell,  Mass 94.969 

Lynchburg,  Va 18,891 

Lynn,  Mass 68,513 

Macon,  Ga 23,272 

Madison,  Wis 19,164 

Maiden,  Mass 88,664 

Manchester,  N.H 56,987 

Manila,  Philippines,  1908 219,928 

Marquette,  Mich 10,058 

McKeesport,  Pa., . ' 84,227 

Memphis,  Tenn 102,320 

Meriden,  Conn 24.296 

Milwaukee,  Wis 285,315 

Minneapolis,  Minn 202,718 

Mobile,  Ala 38,469 

Montgomery,  Ala 30,346 

Montpelier,  Vt 6,266 

Nashua,  N.H 28,898 

Nashville,  Tenn 80,865 

Natchez,  Miss 12,210 

Newark,  N.J 246,070 

New  Bedford,  Mass 62,442 

New  Britain,  Conn 25,998 

Newcastle,  Pa 28,339 

New  Haven,  Conn 108,027 

New  Orleans,  La 287,104 

Newport,  Ky 28,801 

Newport,  R.  1 22,441 

Newport  News,  Va 19,635 

Newton,  Mass 33,587 

New  York,  N.Y 3,437,202 

Niagara  Falls,  N.Y 19,457 

Nome  City,  Alaska 12,486 

Norfolk,  Va 46,624 

Norristown,  Pa 22.265 

Oakland,  Cal 66,960 

Ogden,  Utah 16,313 

Oilcity,  Pa 13,264 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla 10,037 

Clean,  N.Y 9,462 

Olympia,  Wash 4,082 

Omaha,  Neb 102,555 

Oshkosh,  Wis 28,284 

Oswego,  N.Y 22,199 

Pasadena,  Cal 9,117 

Passaic,  N.J 27,777 

Paterson,  N.J 105,171 

Pawtucket,  R.I 89,231 

Pensacola,  Fla 17,747 

Peoria,  111 66,100 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1,298,697 

Phoenix,  Ariz 5,544 

Pierre,  S.D 2,806 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 821,616 

Pittsfield,  Mass 21,766 

Plymouth,  Mass 9,562 

Pomona,  Cal 5,526 

Ponce,  Porto  Eico,  1899 27,952 

Portland,  Me 50,145 

Portland,  Ore 90,426 

Portsmouth,  N.H 10,687 

Pouphkeepsie,  N.Y 24,029 

Providence,  R.I 175.597 

Provincetown,  Mass.,  1895 4,555 

Pueblo,  Colo 28,157 

Quincy,  111 36,252 


Popula- 
tion, 1910 
45,941 
17,970 
319,198 
223,928 
106,294 

29,494 
89,386 
40,665 
25,531 
44,404 

70,063 

11,503 

42.694 
131,105 

27,265 

378,857 

301,403 

51,521 

38,136 

7,856 
26,005 

110,364 
11,791 

347,469 

96,652 

43,916 

86,280 

183,605 

889,075 

30,309 
27,149 
20,205 
39,806 
4,766,888 

30,445 

2,600 

67,452 

27,875 
150,174 

25,580 
15.657 
64,205 
14,743 


124,f 


30,291 
54,773 

125,600 

51,622 

22,982 

66,950 

1,549,008 

11,134 

3,656 

533,905 

32,121 

12,141 

10,207 
35.027 
58,571 
207,214 
11,269 

27,936 

224,326 

4,369 

44,395 

86,587 


VI 


AREA,   POPULATION,  ETC. 


Popula- 
tion, 1900 

Quincy,  Mass 23,899 

Racine,  Wis 29,102 

Kaleigh,  N.C 13,&48 

Reading,  Pa 78,961 

Redlands,  Cal 4,797 

Richmond,  Va .85,050 

Riverside,  Cal 7,978 

Roanoke,  Va 21,495 

Rochester,  N.Y 162,608 

Rockford,  111 31,051 

Rome,  Ga 7,291 

Rutland,  Vt 11,499 

Sacramento,  Cal 29,282 

Saginaw,  Mich 42,345 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 4,272 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 102,979 

St.  Louis,  Mo 575,238 

St.  Paul,  Minn 163,065 

Salem,  Mass 35,956 

Salem,  Ore 4,258 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 58,531 

San  Antonio,  Tex 53,321 

San  Diego,  Cal. 17,700 

San  Francisco,  Cal 842,782 

San  Jose,  Cal 21,500 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  1899. . .  .32,048 

Santa  Fe,  N.M 5,603 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich 10,588 

Savannah,  Ga 54,244 

Schenectady,  N.Y 31,682 

Scranton,  Pa 102,026 

Seattle,  Wash 80,671 

Shreveport,  La 16,013 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 33,111 

Sioux  Falls,  S.D 10,266 

Sitka,  Alaska 1,396 

Somerville,  Mass 61,643 


Popula- 
tion, 1910 
32,642 
38,002 
19,218 
96,071 
10,449 

127,628 
15,212 
34,874 

218,149 
45,401 

12,099 
13,546 
44,696 
50,510 
5,494 

77,403 

687,029 

214,744 

48,697 

14,094 

92,777 
96,614 
39,578 
416,912 
28,946 

48,716 

5,072 

12,615 

65,064 

72,826 

129,867 
237,194 
28,015 

47,828 
14,094 

1,039 
77,230 


Popula-  Popula- 
tion, 1900        tion,  1910 

South  Bend,  Ind 35,999  53,684 

South  Omaha,  Neb 26,001  26,259 

Spokane,  Wash 36,848  104,402 

Springfield,  111 34,159  51,678 

Springfield,  Mass 62,059  88,926 

Springfield,  Ohio 38,253  46,921 

Stockton,  Cal 17,506  23,253 

Superior,  Wis 31,091  40,384 

Syracuse,  N.Y 108,374  137,249 

Tacoma,  Wash 37,714  88,743 

Tallahassee,  Fla 2,981  5,018 

Tampa,  Fla 15,889  37,782 

Taunton,  Mass 31,036  34,259 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 36,673  58,157 

Toledo,  Ohio -. .  .131,822  168,497 

Topeka,  Kan 33,608  43,684 

Trenton,  N.J 73,307  96,815 

Troy,  N.Y 60,651  76,818 

Tucson,  Ariz 7,521  13,193 

Utica,  N.Y 56,888  74,419 

Vicksburg,  Miss 14,884  20,814 

Virginia  City,  Nev 2,695  2,244 

Waltham,  Mass 23,481  27,834 

Washington,  D.C 278,718  831,069 

Waterbury,  Conn 45,859  73,141 

Watertown,  N.Y 21,696  26,730 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 38,878  41,641 

Wichita,  Kan 24,671  52,450 

Wilkes  Barre.  Pa 51,721  67,105 

Williamsport,  Pa 28,757  81,860 

Wilmington,  Del 76,508  87,411 

Winona,  Minn 19,714  18,583 

Woonsocket,  K.  1 28,204  88,125 

Worcester,  Mass 118,421  145,986 

Yonkers,  N.Y 47,931  79,803 

York,  Pa 88,708  44,750 

Youngstown,  Ohio 44,885  79,066 


FOREIGN  CITIES  MOST  OF  WHICH   ARE   MENTIONED   IN  THE  TEXT 


Population 

Aachen,  Germany,  1910 156,044 

Abeokuta,  Niger  Territory 150,000 

Aberdeen,  Scotland,  1911 163,084 

Acapulco,  Mexico 5,000 

Adelaide,  Australia,  1910 192,000 

Adis  Ababa,  Abyssinia 80,000-35,000 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  1907 332,246 

Algiers,  Algeria,  1906 188,240 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  1910 573,983 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  1910 820,640 

Archangel,  Russia,  1911 85,000 

Arequipa,  Peru,  1908 85,000-40.000 

Asuncion,  Paraguay,  1910 84,000 

Athens,  Greece,  1907 167,479 

Auckland,  New  Zealand,  1911 102,676 

Bagdad,  Turkey  in  Asia 75,000 

Bahia.  Brazil,  1909 280,000 

Baku,  Russia,  1904 177,777 

liallarat,  Australia,  1910 44,000 

Bangkok,  Siam,  1909 623,675 

Barcelona,  Spain,  1911 700,000 

Barmen,  Germany,  1910 169,201 

Basel,  Switzerland,  1910 181,914 

Batavia,  Java,  1905 138,551 

Belfast,  Ireland,  1910 391,167 


Population 

Belgrade,  Servia,  1910 84,235 

Benares,  India,  1911 203,804 

Bendigo,  Australia,  1911 42,000 

Berbera,  Br.  Somaliland 30,000 

Bergen,  Norway,  1910 76,917 

Berlin,  Germany,  1910 2,070.695 

Berne,  Switzerland,  1910 85.264 

Bilbao,  Spain,  1910 92;514 

Birmingham,  England,  1910 570,113 

Bloemfontein,  South  Africa,  1911 14,760 

Bogota,  Colombia,  1910 290,000 

Bologna,  Italy,  1911 173,639 

Bombav,  India,  1910 972,892 

Bordeaux,  France,  1911 261,678 

Bradford,  England,  1910 295,865 

Bremen,  Germany,  1910 246,827 

Breslau,  Germany,  1910 511,891 

Brindisi,  Italy,  1907 22,021 

Brisbane,  Australia,  1909 143,077 

Bristol,  England,  1910 882,550 

Brussels,  Belgium,  1910 665,806 

Bucharest,  Roumania,  1908 300,000 

Budapest,  Austria-Hungary,  1910 880,371 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1911 1,826,994 

Cadiz,  Spain,  1910 67,174 


APPENDIX 


Vll 


Population 

Cairo,  Egypt,  1907 654,476 

Calcutta,  India,  1911 1,210,514 

Calgarv,  Canada,  1911 44,000 

Callao,"  Peru,  1908 31,000 

Cambridge,  England,  1905 88,760 

Canton,  China 1,600,000 

Cape  Town,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1911 67,000 

Caracas, Venezuela,   72,429 

Cardiff,  Wales,  1910 199,189 

Cartagena,  Colombia,  1910 27,000 

Cartagena,  Spain,  1910 96,983 

Catania,  Italy,  1911 211,699 

Cayenne,  French  Guiana,  1910 12,426 

Cettinje,  Montenegro,  1906 4,500 

Chemnitz,  Germany,  1910 287,807 

Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  1911 80,193 

Chrlstiania,  Norway,  1910 243,801 

Cologne,  Germany,  1910 516,167 

Colon,  Panama,  1910 19,300 

Constantinople,  Turkey 1,125,000 

Copenhagen,  Denmark,  1911 462,161 

Cordoba,  Argentina,  1911 70,880 

Cordoba,  Spain,  1910 65,160 

Cork,  Ireland,  1911 76,632 

Cuzco,  Peru,  1908 10,000-15,000 

Damascus,  Turkey  in  Asia 250,000 

Danzig,  Germany,  1910 170,347 

Dawson,  Canada,  1901 9,142 

Delhi,  India,  1911 232,837 

Dover,  England,  1905 43,734 

Dresden,  Germany,  1910 546,882 

Dublin,  Ireland,  1910 402,928 

Dundee,  Scotland,  1911 165,006 

Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  1911 04,237 

Durban,  Natal,  1911 31,896 

Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1911 320,815 

Elberfeld,  Germany,  1910 170,118 

Essen,  Germany,  1910 294,629 

Fez,  Morocco,  1910 140,000 

Flume,  Austria-Hungary,  1910 49,806 

Florence,  Italy,  1911 999,405 

Frankfort,  Germany,  1910 414,598 

Fredericton,  Canada,  1901 7,117 

Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  1910 37,682 

Fuchau,  China,  1909 624,000 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  1910 125,520 

Genoa,  Italv,  1911 272,077 

Georgetown.  British  Guiana,  1908 58, 1 76 

Ghent,  Belgium,  1910 164,659 

Gibraltar,  Spanish  Pen.,  1909 25,915 

Glasgow,  Scotland,  1910 784,455 

Gothenburg,  Sweden,  1910 167,818 

Granada,  Spain,  1910 74.283 

Grimsby,  England,  1910 74,288 

Guatemala,  Guatemala,  1910 90,000 

Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  1910 80,000 

Hague,  The,  Netherlands,  1910 280,515 

Halifax,  Canada,  1911 46,000 

Halle,  Germany,  1910 180,551 

Hamburg,  Germany,  1910 936,000 

Hamilton,  Bermuda,  1907 2,246 

Hamilton,  Canada,  1911 82,000 

Hammerfest,  Norway 2,239 

Hangchau,  China,  1909 '  .850,000 

Hankau,  China,  1909 820,000 

Hanover,  Germany,  1910 802,884 

Havana,  Cuba,  19i0 819.884 

Havre,  France,  1911 ,/,',  186,159 

Hebron,  Holy  Land 18,o66-19,000 

Helsingfors,  Russia,  1908 187,346 


Population 

Hobart,  Tasmania,  1911 27,719 

Hongkong,  China,  1908 329,650 

Hue,  French  Ind.  China,  1910 60,000 

Hull,  England,  1909 275,552 

Hyderabad,  India,  1911 500,628 

Iquique,  Chile,  1907 40,171 

Irkutsk,  Siberia,  1908 108,060 

Jaffa,  Holy  Land 45,000 

Jerusalem,  Holy  Land,  1910 70,000 

Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  1910 158,580 

Kabul,  Afghanistan 60,000 

Khartum,  Egyptian  Sudan,  1909 20,956 

Khelat,  Baluchistan 14,000 

Kiev,  Russia,  1909 468,712 

Kimberley,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1911 13,656 

Kingston,  Canada 17,961 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  1911 57,879 

Kioto,  Japan,  1908 442,462 

Konigsberg,  Germany,  1910 245,858 

Krefeld,  Germany,  1910 129,412 

Kuraassi,  Ashanti,  1910 .7,000 

La  Guaira,  Venezuela 8,000 

La  Paz,  Bolivia,  1909 78,856 

La  Plata,  Argentina,  191 1 100,608 

Lassa,  Tibet 15,000-20,000 

Leeds,  England,  1910 490,986 

Leghorn,  Italy.  1908 108,000 

Leicester.  England,  1910 248,874 

Leipzig,  Germany,  1910 587,685 

Leith,  Scotland,  1911 ;  .80,489 

Libreville,  French  Congo 8,000 

Liege,  Belgium,  1910 174,768 

Lille,  France,  1911 217,807 

Lima,  Peru,  1908 140,884 

Limoges,  France,  1911 92,181 

Lisbon,  Portugal,  1900 356,009 

Liverpool,  England,  1910 767,606 

Loanda,  Port.  W.  Africa 14,000 

Lodz,  Kussia,  1908 898,526 

London,  Canada,  1911 46,000 

London,  England,  1910 4,872,702 

London,  Greater,  1910 7,587,196 

Lourenfo  Marquez,  Port.  E.  Africa,  1908 9,849 

Lucerne,  Switzerland,  1910 89,152 

Lucknow,  India,  1911 259,798 

Lvon,  France,  1911 528,796 

Madras,  India,  1911 518,060 

Madrid,  Spain,  1910 571,589 

Magdeburg,  Germany,  1910 279,685 

Malaga,  Spain,  1910 183,045 

Manaos,  Brazil,  1909 50,000 

Manchester,  England,  1910 716,854 

Mandalay,  Burma,  1910 138,299 

Marseille,  France,  1911 550,619 

Maskat,  Oman,  1907 25,000 

Mecca,  Turkey 80,000 

Melbourne,  Australia,  1910 591,830 

Messina,  Italy,  1911 126,172 

Metz,  Germany,  1910 68,667 

Mexico  City,  Mexico,  1910 470,659 

Milan,  Italy,  1911 599.200 

Mocha,  Turkey  in  Asia 5,000 

Mombasa,  Br.  E.  Africa,  1910 80,000 

Monrovia,  Liberia,  1908 8,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay,  1909 291,465 

Montreal,  Canada,  1911 466.000 

Morocco,  Morocco 50,000 

Moscow,  Russia,  1909 1,481,200 

Munich,  Germany,  1910 595.058 

Nogoya,  Japan,  1908 878,281 


VIM 


AREA,   POPULATION,   ETC. 


Population 

Naples,  Italy,  1911 723,208 

Nassau.  Bahama,  1910 12,534 

Nazareth,  Holy  Land 11,000 

Newcastle,  Enjrland,  1911 2(56,671 

Nice,  France,  1911 142,940 

Nizhni  Novgorod,  Prussia,  1904 92,273 

Nottingham,  En^'land,  1910 266,471 

Nuremberg,  Germany,  1910 332,651 

Odessa,  Russia,  1909.' .478,900 

Oporto,  Portugal,  19ll0 167,955 

Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,220,590 

Ottawa,  Canada,  1911 86,000 

Oxford,  England,  1910 53,220 

Palermo,  Italy,  1911 314,656 

Panama,  Panama,  1909 40,801 

Para,  Brazil ; .  .65,000 

Paramaribo,  Dutch  Guiana,  1909 84,795 

Paris,  France,  1911 2,846,986 

Peking,  China 1,600,000 

Pernambuco,  Brazil,  1906 150,000 

Perth,  West  Australia,  1908 54,351 

Peterborough,  Canada,  1901 11,289 

Petrograd,  1910 1,907,708 

Pietermaritzburg,  Natal,  1908 30,589 

Piraeus,  Greece,  1907 78,579 

Pisa,  Italy,  1911 65,215 

Port  Arthur,  Canada,  1901 8,214 

Port  Arthur,  China 

Port  au  Prince,  Haiti,  1908 100,000 

Port  Said,  Egypt,  1907 49,884 

Portsmouth,  England,  1910 217,989 

Posen,  Germany,  1910 156,696 

Potsdam.  Germany,  1910 62,224 

Prague,  Austria- Hungary,  1910 228,741 

Pretoria,  Transvaal,  1910 48,609 

Puebla,  Mexico,  1910 101,214 

Quebec,  Canada.  1910 78.000 

Queenstown,  Ireland 9,082 

Quito,  Ecuador,  1909 70,000 

Rangoon,  Burma,  1911 289,432 

Rheims,  France,  1911 115,178 

Riga,  Russia.  1908 318,400 

Rio  de  Janeiro.  Brazil,  1909 1 .000.(100 

Rome,  Italy,  1911 ;58S,634 

Rosario,  Argentina,  1909 1 76,076 

Rotterdam,  Netherlands,  1909 417,780 

Roubalx.  France,  1906 121,017 

Rouen,  France,  1906 118.459 

St.  Etienne,  France,  1906 146.788 

St.  John,  Canada,  191 1 42,000 

St.  John's.  Newfoundland,  1911 31 .501 

Samarkand,  Russian  Turkestan,  1905 66,166 

San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  1910 82,946 

San  Salvador,  Salvador,  1906 59,540 

Santiago,  Chile,  1907 382,724 

Santo  Domingo,  Santo  Domingo,  1909 18,626 

Santos,  Brazil,  1909 35,000 

Sak)  Paulo,  Brazil,  1909 400,000 


Population 

Seoul,  Korea,  1911 278,958 

Seville,  Spain,  1910 155,866 

Sevres,  France 6,902 

Shanghai,  China 1,000,000 

Sheffield,  England,  1910 478,763 

Siangtan,  China,  1908 1,000,000 

Singanfu,  China,  1908 1,000,000 

Singapore,  Straits  Settlements,  1911 311,985 

Smyrna,  Turkey,  1910 350,000 

Sofia,  Bulgaria,  1910 102,769 

Southampton,  England,  1910 127,157 

Stettin,  Germany,  1910 286,145 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  1910 341,986 

Strassburg,  Germanv,  1910 178,290 

Stuttgart,  Germany,'  1910 ,285,589 

Suchau,  China,  1908 500,000 

Sucre,  Bolivia,  1909 28,416 

Suez,  Egypt,  1910 18,347 

Swansea,  Wales,  1910 98,817 

Sydney,  Australia,  1910 621,100 

Tampico,  Mexico 9,885 

Tananarivo,  Madagascar,  1909 94.810 

Tangier,  Morocco.  1901 .■35,008 

Tashkend,  Russian  Turkestan,  1901 164.740 

Teheran,  Persia,  1905 280,009 

Tiberias,  Holy  Land,  1905 5,000 

Tientsin,  China,  1910 1,000,000 

Titiis,  Russia,  1904 196,985 

Timbuktu,  Sudan 20,000 

Tokyo,  Japan,  1908 2,186,079 

Toronto,  Canada,  1911 376,000 

Trebizond,  Turkey  in  Asia 51,000 

Trieste,  Austria- Hungary,  1910 229,475 

Tripoli.  Tripoli,  1909 30,000 

Trondhjem,  Norway,  1910 45,228 

Tunis,  Tunis,  1906 227,519 

Turin,  Italy,  1911 427,733 

Upernivik,  Greenland 700 

Valencia,  Spain,  1910 233,348 

Valparaiso,  Chile,  1907 162,447 

Vancouver,  Canada,  1911 100,000 

Venice,  Italv,  1911 160,727 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  1910 29,164 

Versailles,  France.  1911 60,458 

Victoria,  Canada,  1911 32.000 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1911 2,004,291 

Vladivo.stok,  Siberia,  1909 90,162 

Warsaw,  Russia,  1909 781,179 

Wellington,  New  Zealand,  1911 70,729 

West  Ham,  England,  1910 828,585 

Windsor,  Canada.  1901 12  153 

Winnipeg,  Canada,  191 1 185,000 

Wuchang,  China 300,000 

Yakoba,  Niger  Terr 50,000 

Yarmouth,  Canada,  1901 6,420 

Yokohama,  Japan,  1908 394,808 

Zanzibar  (British),  1910 85,262 

Zurich,  Switzerland,  1910 189,088 


ELEVATION  OF  SOME  PLATEAUS   AND   MOUNTAIN   PEAKS 


Feet 

Abyssinian  Plateau 5-7,000 

Aconcagua.  Andes,  Argentina  (highest  in 

South  Americn) 22,860 

Apo,  Mindanao,  Philippines 10,312 

Ararat,  Turkey  in  Asia 17,825 

Mt.  Blanc,  Alps,  France  {highest  in  Alps)  15,781 


Feet 

Bolivian  Plateau 10-13,000 

Brazilian  Plateau 2-2,500 

Chimborazo,  Andes,  Ecuador 20,498 

Cotopaxi,  Andes,  Ecuador 19,618 

Elbruz,  Caucasus,  Russia 18,200 


APPENDIX 


IX 


Feet 

Etna,  Sicily '  10,885 

Everest,  Himalayas,  Nepal  (fiighetft known 

in  the  world) 29.002 

Fi-emont  Peak,   IJocky  Mountains,  Wyo.  18,790 

Fuiivama,  Japan ." 12,805 

Hecia,  Iceland 5,110 

Kunchiniunga 28,156 

Kenia,  Africa 18,620 

Kilimanjaro,   Africa   {highest  known   in 

Africa) 19,780 

Kosciusko,  Australia  {highest  in  Aitstra- 

lia) 7,386 

Logan,    Coast    Ranges,    Canada    (highest 

known  in  Canada) 19,539 

McKinley.    Alaska    {highest    known    in 

North  America) 20,464 

Mauna  Kea,  Ha\Vaiian  Islands    13,805 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaiian  Islands 18.675 

Muyon,  Luzon  Island,  Philippines 8,900 

Mexican  Plateau 5-6,000 


Feet 
Mitchell,  Appalachian  Mts.,  N.C.  {highest 

in  Eastern  U.S.) 6,711 

Mt.  Marcy,  New  York 6,344 

Mt.  Tina,  Haiti 10,800 

Orizaba,  Mexico  {highest  in  Mexico) 18,314 

Pico  del  Turquino,  Cuba 8,600 

Pike's  Peak,  Rocky  Mts.,  Colorado 14,111 

Popocatepetl,  Mexico 17,798 

Rainier,  Cascade  Mts.,  Washington 14,368 

St.  Elias,  Alaska 18,025 

San  Francisco  Mountain,  Arizona 12,794 

Shasta,  Cascade  Mts.,  California 14,380 

Tibet  I'lateau 10-15,000 

United  States,  Western  Plateau 5-6,000 

Vesuvius,  Italy 4,200 

Washington,  White  Mts.,  N.H.  {highest 

in  Northeastern  U.S.) 6,279 

Whitney,  Sierra  Nevada,  California  {high- 
est in  Western  U.S.) 14,502 

Yunque,  Porto  Rico 3,609 


SOME  OF  THE  LARGEST  RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD 


SortL  America 

Length 
in  Miles 

Basin 
Area 

Sq.  Miles 

Ocean 

Arkansas 

Colorado 

Columbia 

Mackenzie 

Missouri 

...2,170 
...2,000 
...1,400 

...2,000 
...3,000 

185,671 
225,049 
216,587 
590,000 
527,155 

Atlantic 

Pacific 

Pacific 

Arctic 

Atlantic 

Missouri-Mississippi 

Nelson 

Ohio 

Rio  Grande 

St.  Lawrence 

. .  ,4,300 
..1,732 
...    975 
...1,800 
...2,200 

1,257,000 
432,000 
201,720 
240,000 
580,000 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 

Yukon 

...2,000 

440,000 

Pacific 

South  America 

Amazon 

Orinoco 

Plata,     . 

. .  .3,300 
..1,350 
.     2,580 

2,500.000 
866,000 

1,200,000 
200,000 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 

Sao  Francisco 

...1,800 

Atlantic 

Europe 

Danube 

Dneiper 

Dvvina 

Elbe 

Po 

...1,770 
...1,200 
..1,000 
...    725 
. . .    400 

300,000 

242,000 

140,000 

55,000 

27,000 

75,000 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Arctic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Rhtae 

...    800 

-Atlantic 

Length  in 
Miles 

Ehone 500 

Seine 482 

Thames 228 

Volga 2,400 

Asia 

Amur 2,800 

Brahmaputra 1,800 

Ganges 1,500 

Hoang-ho 2,700 

Indus 1,800 

Irawadi 1,500 

Lena    2,800 

Mekong    2.800 

Ob  3,200 

Yangtse-kiang 3,200 

Yenisei  8,000     1,500,000 

Africa 

Congo 2,900  1,200,000 

Niger 2,600  568,300 

Nile 3,400  1,273,000 

Zambezi 1,500  600,000 

Australia 

Darling 1,100 

Murray 1,000 


Basin 
Area 

Sq.  Miles  Ocean 

38,000  Atlantic 

30,800  Atlantic 

6,100  Atlantic 

568,800  Caspian 


520,000 
425,000 
440,000 
570,000 
372,700 

158,000 
950,000 
280,000 
1,000,000 
548,000 


270,000 


Pacific 
Indian 
Indian 
Pacific 
Indian 

Indian 
Arctic 
Pacific 
Arctic 
Pacific 
Arctic 


Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Indian 


Indian 
Indian 


SOME  OF  THE  LARGE  LAKES  OF  THE  WORLD 


Area  in   Elevation  Greatest 


Aral  Sea      

Square 

Miles 
..  26,900 

in        I 

Feet 
160 
1,812 

780 
—  851 

800-900 

—  1,3101 
573 
200 
4,218 

)epth  in 
i-eet 
225 

Baikal 

Balkash 

..  12,500 
. .     7,800 
..169,000 

4,550 

70 

2,400 

12 

Chad,  variable  with 
season  

..  10.000 

and  often  more 
Dead  Sea 370 

1,330 
210 

80-50 
over  650 

Erie 9,990 

Great  Bear  Lake 11,200 

Great  Salt  Lake 2,360 

Great  Slave  Lake 10,;00 

1  Below  sea  level 

Area  in    Elevation   Greatest 


Square  in 

Miles  Feet 

Huron 22,822  582 

Ladoga •     7,000  60 

Manitoba 1.850  810 

Michigan 21,729  582 

Nicaragua 8,600  110 

Nvassa 14.000  1,500 

Ontario 7.1(U  247 

Superior 80,829  602 

Tanganyika 12,650  2,800 

Titicaca 8,800  12,875 

Victoria  Nyanza 80,000  4,000 

Winnipeg 9,400  710 


Depth  in 
Feet 
75li 


870 
88 

600  + 

738 
l.ons 
2,100 

700 


590 


70 


AREA,   POPULATION,   ETC. 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   MANKIND 


.m,{ 


mongolians 

China 380,000,000 

Japan  and  Korea 65,000,000 

Indo-China 85.000,000 

Malaysia 30,000,000 

Other  Mongolians 40,000,000 

Caucasians 770,000,000 


Europe 

Asia 

America  . . . 

Africa 

Australasia . 


.355,000,000 
,280,000,000 
115,000,000 
.  15,000,000 
.     5.000,000 


Africa  and  Madagascar 

153,000  0(i(» 

North  and  South  America 

nerican  Indians 

..  20,000,0(10 
0    22,170,000 

Mexico     

8  765  000 

Brazil 

. .     4,200,000 

Colombia 

3  150,000 

..     2,700,000 

Bolivia,  Guatemala,  and  Venezuela . . 
United  States 

. .     4,225,000 
250,000 

Canada 

100,000 

RELIGIONS  OF  MANKIND 


Buddhists  and  Brahmins 650,000,000 

Christians 440,000,000 

Jews 8,000,000 


Mohammedans 180,000,000 

Pagans  and  others 250,000,000 


PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES  FROM  WHICH  THE   FOREIGN-BORN   POPULATION  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES   HAS  COME 


Country  of  Birth  Number  in  1910 

Austria-Hungary 258,737 

Italy 215,537 

Russian  Empire 186,792 

British  North  America 56,555 

England 46,706 


Country  of  Birth  Number  in  1910 

German  Empire 31,283 

Ireland 29,855 

Greece 25,888 

Sweden 23,745 

Scotland 20,115 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NEGROES   IN  THE  FIFTEEN  STATES   WHERE  THEY  ARE   MOST 

NUMEROUS 


Percentage  of 
Number  of  Negroes    Negroes  to  Total 
States  in  1900  Population,  1900 

1.  Georgia 1,034,813  46.69 

2.  Mississippi 907,630 58.50 

8.   Alabama 827,807 45.24 

4.  South  Carolina. .    782,321 58.36 

5.  Virginia 660,722 35.63 

6.  Louisiana 650,804 47.10 

1.   North  Carolina      624,469 32.97 

8.  Texas 620,722 20.36 


Percentage  of 
Number  of  Negroes    Negroes  to  Total 
States                    in  1900           Population,  1900 
9.  Tennessee 480,243 23.77 

10.  Arkansas 366,856 27.97 

11.  Kentucky 284,706 13.25 

12.  Maryland 2:^064 19.75 

13.  Florida 280,730 43.65 

14.  Missouri 161,234 5.18 

15.  Pennsylvania...    156,845 2.48 

Total  number  of  Negroes  in  1900,  8,840,789. 


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